Changes in the salinity of the Euphrates River system in Iraq

The water salinity of the Euphrates River as it enters Iraq, expressed as total dissolved solids (TDS), has more than doubled compared to that of 1973. Downstream of Al Hindia Barrage, south of Baghdad, the salinity has increased gradually over the last 30 years. The annual average TDS at Al Nassiriah, in the lower reaches of the Euphrates, has increased from 1,080 ppm in 1979 to more than 4,500 ppm in 2001. Water quality of the Euphrates within Iraq has deteriorated due to the decreased flow that is entering Iraq, diverted flows to the river from Al Tharthar Lake, and irrigation-return flow. The decreased flow from upstream sources was due to reservoir construction projects. Water from Al Tharthar Lake and from irrigation return flow is being diverted to the Euphrates to compensate for the upstream deficit. An environmental flow rate of 178 m³/s (annual minimum flow, 5.6 bcm or about one-third of historic minimum flow) is proposed as the minimum discharge that must be flowing into Iraq to preserve the environment of the Euphrates River in Iraq. A flow of twice this amount would allow more reasonable downstream management with an input average salinity of 760 ppm.     

蒲河流域生态环境需水研究

以蒲河流域为例，以改善水环境为出发点，提出了一种以生态分区为前提，同时满足人类正常生产活动的生态环境需水估算模型。该模型从生态系统角度分析了蒲河流域现阶段存在的问题，比简单的水文模型更为符合蒲河流域的实际特点。在此基础上对蒲河流域进行生态分区，针对各生态分区对生态需水的需求不同，分别估算需水值。其中包括河道基本生态需水、河道蒸发需水，河道渗漏需水等。在考虑生态需求的同时，针对蒲河季节性河流且人工干扰严重的特点，对蒲河流域生态需水量值进行估算。计算结果表明，蒲河流域生态需水总量为4 53846万m³，并具有年内变化显著、受人类活动（污水排放量、人口密度等）影响各分区差距显著等特点，研究成果为今后季节性河流需水量的研究提供了依据     

Co-evolution of wetland landscapes,flooding, and human settlement in the Mississippi River Delta Plain

River deltas all over the world are sinking beneath sea-level rise, causing significant threats to natural and social systems. This is due to the combined effects of anthropogenic changes to sediment supply and river flow, subsidence, and sea-level rise, posing an immediate threat to the 500–1,000 million residents, many in megacities that live on deltaic coasts. The Mississippi River Deltaic Plain (MRDP) provides examples for many of the functions and feedbacks, regarding how human river management has impacted source-sink processes in coastal deltaic basins, resulting in human settlements more at risk to coastal storms. The survival of human settlement on the MRDP is arguably coupled to a shifting mass balance between a deltaic landscape occupied by either land built by the Mississippi River or water occupied by the Gulf of Mexico. We developed an approach to compare 50 % L:W isopleths (L:W is ratio of land to water) across the Atchafalaya and Terrebonne Basins to test landscape behavior over the last six decades to measure delta instability in coastal deltaic basins as a function of reduced sediment supply from river flooding. The Atchafalaya Basin, with continued sediment delivery, compared to Terrebonne Basin, with reduced river inputs, allow us to test assumptions of how coastal deltaic basins respond to river management over the last 75 years by analyzing landward migration rate of 50 % L:W isopleths between 1932 and 2010. The average landward migration for Terrebonne Basin was nearly 17,000 m (17 km) compared to only 22 m in Atchafalaya Basin over the last 78 years (p < 0.001), resulting in migration rates of 218 m/year (0.22 km/year) and <0.5 m/year, respectively. In addition, freshwater vegetation expanded in Atchafalaya Basin since 1949 compared to migration of intermediate and brackish marshes landward in the Terrebonne Basin. Changes in salt marsh vegetation patterns were very distinct in these two basins with gain of 25 % in the Terrebonne Basin compared to 90 % decrease in the Atchafalaya Basin since 1949. These shifts in vegetation types as L:W ratio decreases with reduced sediment input and increase in salinity also coincide with an increase in wind fetch in Terrebonne Bay. In the upper Terrebonne Bay, where the largest landward migration of the 50 % L:W ratio isopleth occurred, we estimate that the wave power has increased by 50–100 % from 1932 to 2010, as the bathymetric and topographic conditions changed, and increase in maximum storm-surge height also increased owing to the landward migration of the L:W ratio isopleth. We argue that this balance of land relative to water in this delta provides a much clearer understanding of increased flood risk from tropical cyclones rather than just estimates of areal land loss. We describe how coastal deltaic basins of the MRDP can be used as experimental landscapes to provide insights into how varying degrees of sediment delivery to coastal deltaic floodplains change flooding risks of a sinking delta using landward migrations of 50 % L:W isopleths. The nonlinear response of migrating L:W isopleths as wind fetch increases is a critical feedback effect that should influence human river-management decisions in deltaic coast. Changes in land area alone do not capture how corresponding landscape degradation and increased water area can lead to exponential increase in flood risk to human populations in low-lying coastal regions. Reduced land formation in coastal deltaic basins (measured by changes in the land:water ratio) can contribute significantly to increasing flood risks by removing the negative feedback of wetlands on wave and storm-surge that occur during extreme weather events. Increased flood risks will promote population migration as human risks associated with living in a deltaic landscape increase, as land is submerged and coastal inundation threats rise. These system linkages in dynamic deltaic coasts define a balance of river management and human settlement dependent on a certain level of land area within coastal deltaic basins (L).     

Climatic and human drivers of recent lake-level change in East Juyan Lake,China

Drying of an inland river’s terminal lake in arid regions is an important signal of environmental degradation in downstream regions. A long-term, high-resolution understanding of the lake’s retreat and expansion and the driving mechanisms will inform future adaptive water management strategies, ecosystem restoration, and government decision-making in the context of a growing water scarcity in the inland river basin. The shrubs that grow along the shore of a lake often provide evidence of lake retreat or expansion. The chronological results showed that the earliest germination dates of the lakeshore shrubs, tamarisk, were in 1901, 1943, 1966, 2009, and 1990 from the higher terrace to the lower terrace of East Juyan Lake, a terminal lake of China’s Heihe River. Coupled with river and lake hydrological data, six obvious lake’s fluctuations were identified: shrinkage from 1900 to 1940s and during the early 1990s, expansion and retreat in the late 1950s and early 1970s, continued expansion from 2002 to 2008, and stabilization at a water area of around 40 km² from 2009 to the present. The water elevation in the 1900s was below 905 m a.s.l., resulting in a water area <80 km², but decreased to 40 km² after 1960 and dried up completely by the 1990s. By analysing climatic and hydrological records since 1950, tree-ring climate proxy data, river runoff outside the observation period, and water resource consumption in the middle and lower reaches of the Heihe River, we found that the periodic expansion and retreat of East Juyan Lake was influenced by both climate change and human activities, but especially by human activities. The lake’s recent recovery and stability was achieved by government policy designed to provide environmental flows to the lake.     

Potential for the desalination of a brackish groundwater aquifer under a background of rising sea level via salt intrusion prevention river gates in the coastal area of the Red River Delta,Vietnam

Additional freshwater sources are required in many parts of the world, including the coastal areas of the Red River Delta (RRD), where the groundwater (GW) is generally brackish. Determining a feasible method for desalinating brackish aquifers would help provide additional freshwater sources. However, substantial desalination of brackish aquifers cannot be achieved under the natural conditions of GW flow and precipitation recharge. Although rainfall recharge to the shallow Holocene aquifer has occurred for hundreds of years, the aquifer still remains brackish since the natural hydraulic conditions do not allow a complete mixing between the fresh recharged water and aquifer salinized water or the discharging of the aquifer salinized water. The planned salt intrusion prevention gates in the Red River, Tra Ly River and Hoa River in the RRD coastal area, combined with increased GW abstraction and associated aquifer recharge with fresh river water, could result in the gradual desalination of the shallow Holocene aquifer. These effects would help improve the area’s resilience to freshwater shortages and sea level rises and would allow for the creation of a long-term sustainable water resource development plan to manage the salinization of water resources caused by sea level rises. Finite element (FE) modeling of GW flow, solute transport via GW flow and dynamic programming (DP) have been used to study the potential desalination of brackish aquifers, the magnitude of GW abstraction quantities and the spatial and temporal aspects of desalination. FE modeling of GW flow coupled with DP was utilized to identify the magnitude of sustainable abstraction quantities and the GW flow field, which is required in salt transport models. Multiple sizes of elements and time steps were used to adapt to the unsteady state of GW flow and hydraulic head variables between the elements in the FE meshes in order to ensure reasonable accuracy of numerical modeling. The GW flow and salt transport modeling and DP allowed determining quasi-steady-state GW abstraction rates and aquifer salinity levels for conditions that did and did not include the shallow Holocene unconfined aquifer recharge from rainfall. The aquifer modeled domain which is supposed to serve the pumping well field is 1.5 km². The results showed that the Holocene aquifer may provide a stable abstraction rate of 100 m³/day starting in the 6th year (for the worst-case scenario with zero aquifer recharge from rainfall) to 130 m³/day starting in the 3rd year (for the scenario with aquifer recharge equal to 3% of the rainfall levels). During the first years of GW abstraction, the desalination of the brackish upper Holocene aquifer will mainly occur in the area close to the river, and at the 18th year of abstraction, almost the entire area between the river and line of pumping wells would be desalinized. From the 10th year of abstraction, the abstracted water has a total dissolved solids content lower than 0.5 g/l for the worst-case scenario with zero aquifer recharge from rainfall and lower than 0.42 g/l for the scenario with aquifer recharge equal to 3% of the rainfall. The modeling results indicate the simulated process by which abstraction of groundwater adjacent to the Tra Ly River could desalinize the brackish aquifer via freshwater recharge from the river.     

基于水量分配方案的抚河流域最小控制需水量研究

鄱阳湖流域水资源丰富，在非汛期尤其是用水高峰期，存在供需水矛盾和河道外用水挤占河道内用水现象。基于水量分配方案，以控制断面为节点，考虑河道外需水，兼顾河道内生态环境需水，系统提出计算流域控制断面最小控制需水量方法。在此基础上，以抚河流域为例，把流域划分为12个控制断面，分别为沙子岭、黎川、南城、洪门、廖坊、石门、廖家湾、娄家村、马圩、焦石、柴埠口和李家渡，各断面的最小控制需水量分别为740、380、2873、1200、4981、261、5085、7168、050、10894、1556 和1030 m3/s。通过水文监测控制流域断面流量，为落实水量分配方案、保护流域水环境和维持河流生态系统健康提供保障。同时，以最小需水量并与实测流量比较，确定各用水区余缺水量，为实施流域非汛期水量调度提供依据     

Vulnerability of the power sector of Bangladesh to climate change and extreme weather events

Rise in temperature and annual precipitation, changes in seasonal rainfall patterns, more frequent and severe extreme weather events, and increased salinity in river water have been observed in Bangladesh in the recent years. Rising temperature will elevate total power consumption and peak power demand especially during the pre-monsoon hot summer season, reduce power plant efficiency and transformer lifetime, and increase the transmission loss. More frequent and severe extreme weather events may cause more disruption in power generation and distribution, and more damage of power infrastructure. Lower river flow in dry season may cause water scarcity in power plants and hamper the production. Increased salinity in river water due to sea level rise may lead to corrosion and leakages in power plants located in the coastal region of Bangladesh. A diversified, decentralized, and climate resilient power system can reduce negative impacts of climate change on power sector of Bangladesh. Adaptation and mitigation strategies must be incorporated in the planning and development of new power systems and the reformation of existing power systems of Bangladesh.     

Restoration of the lower reaches of the Tarim River in China

The middle and lower reaches of the Tarim River are areas of rich biodiversity and natural resources in the inland arid region of China. However, the Tarim River and its associated wetlands have been severely damaged and fragmented during the past several decades. To restore the deteriorated ecosystem and preserve the endangered riverine vegetation along the Tarim River, a project for releasing water from upper dams to the lower reaches of the Tarim River was initiated by China’s government in 2000. Between 2000 and 2005, we monitored the responses of groundwater levels and vegetation to this mitigation along nine transects spaced at mean intervals of 45 km along the river from Daxihaizi Reservoir, the source of water conveyance, to the Lake Taitema, the mouth of the Tarim River. We found that average groundwater levels rose significantly from 8 to 4 m below ground surface. Species diversity did not change during the 5-year period, but the total vegetation coverage and canopy size of some species significantly increased. The endangered tree species, Populus euphratica, started to regenerate. Our results indicated that species diversity might recover very slowly, even if the trial water release program became a permanent river management practice. Management decisions about allocating limited water supplies among competing uses in arid regions will ultimately determine whether degraded river ecosystems, such as the Tarim River, can be restored.     

三峡工程对两湖的生态影响

长江干流的渔业捕捞量从1954年的43万t下降到2011年的8万t,降幅达81%,而两湖(洞庭湖和鄱阳湖)的渔业捕捞量分别在2~4万t之间波动。三峡大坝对洞庭湖三口径流量的影响有限,但使江水倒灌鄱阳湖的天数和水量进一步降低。长江来水占洞庭湖径流量的30%,而在鄱阳湖中仅有0.1%,因此,对维持长江干流的渔业资源(特别是产漂流性卵鱼类)来说,洞庭湖的重要性远超鄱阳湖。干流渔业资源的衰退主要是江湖阻隔的结果,虽然过度捕捞起到了推波助澜的作用,因此,即使在干流休渔十年,也未必能使长江的渔业资源大幅回升。如果在两湖建闸,长江渔业资源的衰退将会进一步加剧,江豚的灭绝可能难以避免,因此,维持两湖与长江的生态联系,对长江干流生物多样性的维持至关重要。     

Present to future sediment transport of the Brahmaputra River: reducing uncertainty in predictions and management

The Brahmaputra River in South Asia carries one of the world’s highest sediment loads, and the sediment transport dynamics strongly affect the region’s ecology and agriculture. However, present understanding of sediment conditions and dynamics is hindered by limited access to hydrological and geomorphological data, which impacts predictive models needed in management. We here synthesize reported peer-reviewed data relevant to sediment transport and perform a sensitivity analysis to identify sensitive and uncertain parameters, using the one-dimensional model HEC-RAS, considering both present and future climatic conditions. Results showed that there is considerable uncertainty in openly available estimates (260–720 Mt yr^?1) of the annual sediment load for the Brahmaputra River at its downstream Bahadurabad gauging station (Bangladesh). This may aggravate scientific impact studies of planned power plant and reservoir construction in the region, as well as more general effects of ongoing land use change and climate change. We found that data scarcity on sediment grain size distribution, water discharge, and Manning’s roughness coefficient had the strongest controls on the modelled sediment load. However, despite uncertainty in absolute loads, we showed that predicted relative changes, including a future increase in sediment load by about 40 % at Bahadurabad by 2075–2100, were consistent across multiple model simulations. Nevertheless, for the future scenarios we found that parameter uncertainty almost doubled for water discharge and river geometry, highlighting that improved information on these parameters could greatly advance the abilities to predict and manage current and future sediment dynamics in the Brahmaputra river basin.     

滇池流域水资源综合平衡管理研究

随着滇池治理的进展,在今后一个时期内,恢复滇池饮用水环境功能,成为滇池治理的首要目标和任务。围绕滇池流域水资源供求平衡,采用水资源全要素配置框架下的三次平衡分析理论,从整体上分析了滇池流域水资源供求平衡关系及存在的主要问题,提出了以需求为导向,建立滇池流域水资源综合平衡管理目标和措施。分析表明：在滇池治理的基础上,通过建立滇池流域水资源综合平衡管理体系,落实管理措施,从总量平衡的理论上能够充分发挥引水工程的作用,恢复滇池饮用水环境功能,实现水量、水质供求的综合平衡。建议进一步开展量化分析和模拟实验研究,为在滇池流域实施综合平衡管理提供可靠依据和建议     

滇池水环境治理的“调水”“活水”工程

3.40MaB P，沿普渡河断裂发育的普渡河和沿小江断裂发育的小江均汇入到昆明盆地，形成滇池，并产生厚达千米的堆积物。早更新世晚期，金沙江贯通，导致普渡河和小江均倒流汇入金沙江，从而滇池处在金沙江、珠江和红河三大水系的风口的位置，滇池的补给系数变小，换水周期增长。近几十年来，污染物的输入和积累，导致滇池水质急剧下降。因此滇池水环境的整治，除了减少污染物的输入外，建议在禄劝县引掌鸠河的水入螳螂川，并流入滇池。滇池的集水面积增加到16 066 km2，滇池的入湖地表径流量就增加到26.64×108 m3，换水周期减少到197.2 d。与此同时使滇池在昆明向北流出，污染物不再扩散到整个湖泊，这样便可较好地解决滇池污染，整治滇池的水环境。     

鄱阳湖区氮磷污染物分布、转移和削减特征

根据入湖污染负荷监测、调查资料和不同水文条件下流场-水质同步监测资料,应用数理统计方法,研究了鄱阳湖氮磷营养物质分布、转移和削减特征。研究结果显示:(1)总磷、总氮是影响鄱阳湖水环境质量的主要污染物,入湖污染负荷与入湖径流水量紧密正相关。(2)鄱阳湖换水周期短,水流更换频繁,氮磷污染物在湖区不会充分混合;氮磷超标水域随着水体流动,逐步向下游转移、扩散;湖水位处于消落状态,通江水道部分水域氮磷浓度超标。(3)湖相状态水环境比河相好,湖相状态一般不会出现大面积的总氮和总磷同时超标。(4)鄱阳湖水环境勉强维持Ⅲ类标准,如果出现损害环境的人类活动,脆弱的水环境将会恶化。针对这些特征提出了保护鄱阳湖"一湖清水"的对策建议。     

Reallocating water from canal irrigation for environmental flows: benefits forgone in the Upper Ganga Basin in India

This paper assesses the potential loss of irrigation benefits in reallocating water from irrigation to meet requirements for environmental flows (e-flows) in the Upper Ganga Basin (UGB) in northern India. The minimum requirement for e-flows in the UGB is 32 billion cubic meters (BCM), or 42 % of the mean annual runoff. The current runoff during the low-flow months falls below the minimum requirement for e-flows by 5.1 BCM. Depending on irrigation efficiency, reallocation of 41–51 % of the water from canal irrigation withdrawals can meet this deficit in minimum e-flows. The marginal productivity of canal irrigation consumptive water use (CWU), estimated from a panel regression with data from 32 districts from 1991 to 2004, assesses the potential loss of benefits in diverting water away from crop production. In the UGB, canal irrigation contributes to only 8 % of the total CWU of 56 BCM, and the marginal productivity of canal irrigation CWU across districts is also very low, with a median of 0.03 USD/m³. Therefore, at present, the loss of benefits is only 1.2–1.6 % of the gross value of crop production. This loss of benefits can be overcome with an increase in irrigation efficiency or marginal productivity.     

Impacts of climate change on the hydrology of two Natura 2000 sites in Northern Greece

Greece is included among the most vulnerable regions of Europe by climate change on account of higher temperature and reduced rainfall in areas already facing water scarcity. With respect to wetland systems, many ephemeral ones are expected to disappear and several permanent to shrink due to climate change. As regards two specific wetlands of Greece, the change in hydroperiod of Cheimaditida and Kerkini lakes due to climate change was studied. Lakes’ water balance was simulated using historical climate data and the emission scenarios Α1Β for the period 2020–2050 and Α1Β and Α2 for the period 2070–2100. Future climate scenarios, based on emission scenarios A1B and A2, were provided in the context of the study of Climate Change Impacts Study Committee. The surface area of Lake Cheimaditida will undergo a substantial decrease, initially by 20 % during the period 2020–2050 and later until 37 % during the period 2070–2100. In Lake Kerkini, the surface area will decrease, initially by 5 % during the period 2020–2050 and later until 14 % during the period 2070–2100. Climate change is anticipated to impact the hydroperiod of the two wetlands, and the sustainable water management is essential to prevent the wetland’s biodiversity loss.     

洞庭湖近年干旱与三峡蓄水影响分析

季节性水文干旱是洞庭湖近年突出的水情问题,并因三峡影响而倍受关注。基于洞庭湖水文干旱的关注焦点（湿地生态影响）及其与湖泊水情的对应关系,建立了湖泊滩地出露与持续时间为依据的干旱度量指标;并利用水文分析方法,揭示了洞庭湖水文干旱发生的时空特点和水情机制;最后,基于BP神经网络模型获取的三峡水库蓄水对洞庭湖的水位影响量化了三峡水库秋季蓄水对湖区干旱的贡献分量。结果认为：（1）2000年后,洞庭湖的干旱频次明显增多、旱情加重,干旱程度以西洞庭最剧,东洞庭次之,南洞庭最轻;（2）洞庭湖不同湖区干旱成因存在一定差异,其中全湖的春旱基本由洞庭湖流域来水偏少引起,而东洞庭湖秋旱主要由长江来水减少引起,西、南洞庭湖秋旱则由长江和洞庭湖流域来水共同减少形成;（3）三峡水库蓄水对东洞庭湖秋旱起到一定的加重作用,但并非洞庭湖近年干旱的主要因素     

Hydrogeomorphic variability due to dam constructions and emerging problems: a case study of Damodar River,West Bengal,India

In the first multipurpose river valley planning of India, the vast resources of Damodar River Basin (DRB) (eastern India) are not only to be envisioned in their entirety but also to be developed in a unified manner where the water, land, and people are simultaneously bounded in a seamless web. Four large dams (Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon, and Panchet), Durgapur barrage, and Tenughat reservoir are built to tamp the flood-prone Damodar River using water resource in an integrated method. The functionality of Damodar fluvial system is controlled by dams, barrage, weirs, sluices, embankments, and canals, maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between fluvial processes and anthropogenic processes. Carrying more than 50 years of legacy, the existing drainage and flood control system of Damodar Valley Corporation has aggravated a number of hydrogeomorphic problems especially in lower DRB, viz. siltation of river bed and reservoirs, uncontrolled monsoonal stream flow, declining carrying capacity of lower course, drainage congestion, low-magnitude annual floods, channel shifting, de-functioned canals, decay of paleochannels, decline of ground water level, and less replenishing of soils with fresh silts. The present paper is mainly tried to investigate the pre-dam and post-dam hydrogeomorphic variability in relation to flood risk and drawbacks of Damodar Valley Multipurpose Project. Specifically, the annual peak flow of Damodar shifts from August to September due to dam construction and reservoir storage. Applying the annual flood series of log Pearson type III distribution, we have estimated post-dam 5-year peak discharge of above 5,300 m³ s^?1 and 100-year flood of above 11,000 m³ s^?1. Due to siltation, the bankfull discharges of sample segments are gradually declined up to 4,011 m³ s^?1, 2,366 m³ s^?1, and 1,542 m³ s^?1, respectively, having recurrence interval of 1.18–3.18 years only. With the regulation of monsoon flow, the standard sinuosity index is gradually increased downstream, having high dominance of hydraulic factors in respect of topographic factors. The upstream section of study area (Rhondia to Paikpara) now shows the dominance of aggradational landforms, braiding, avulsion, high width–depth ratio, breaching of right bank, and valley widening, but downstream of Barsul the phenomena of bank erosion, confined sinuosity, low width–depth ratio, and narrowness are more pronounced.     

杭州市暴雨洪涝灾害风险区划

暴雨洪涝灾害是一个多因素耦合的复杂系统，在自然灾害系统理论基础上，根据杭州市1959～2009年的降水资料、自然环境以及社会经济要素，综合致灾因子、孕灾环境、承灾体以及防灾减灾能力，构建区域暴雨洪涝灾害风险评价模型。考虑到降水、地形、水系以及GDP和耕地等因子，通过ArcGIS空间分析技术结合模糊综合评价法，编制以100 m×100 m栅格为基本评价单元的杭州市暴雨洪涝灾害风险区划图。区划结果表明杭州暴雨洪涝风险东北部高于西南部。杭州暴雨洪涝风险高值区主要在杭州市区、余杭区、临安市、富阳市和桐庐县的富春江流域、淳安千岛湖西南部地区。暴雨洪涝风险高值区主要集中在山谷、河边、江边、人口密集地区等区域     

丰水期鄱阳湖氮磷含量变化及来源分析

通过系统测定丰水期鄱阳湖湖水、主要支流水、长江水及部分农田水、地下水及城市污水的氮磷含量,对其氮磷含量变化及来源进行了分析,结果表明,鄱阳湖水体中主要的氮素形式是硝酸盐氮（090 mg/L）,赣江是其主要贡献者。鄱阳湖五大支流氮磷含量存在着较大的差异,赣江NO-3 N含量明显高于鄱阳湖其它主干流,而NH+4 N和TN含量以饶河的最高,TP以信江的最高。农田水、城市废水以及地下水含有较高的氮磷含量,是鄱阳湖及其五大支流氮磷的主要来源。农田水TN和TP含量最高,分别为1347、2863 mg/L。高含量的NO-3 N（735 mg/L）和NH+4 N（548 mg/L）分别出现在地下水和城市污水中。鄱阳湖水体氮负荷较大,N/P比值远大于7〖DK〗∶1。受滞留区及赣江和修水补给的影响,鄱阳湖主河道氮含量变化从上游至下游呈总体上升趋势。鄱阳湖湖体氮含量以下游最高,滞留区次之,上游主河道最低,TP含量呈相反的趋势变化。底层沉积有机物的降解和扰动导致鄱阳湖水体底层NO-3 N、NH+4 N、TN、TP的含量高于表层。     

美国州法中的内径流水权及其优先权日问题

美国水资源的所有权属于各州 ,是一种公有的资源。法律上的水权 ,是水的使用权 ,主要包括私人所有的先占权水权、岸边权水权。在美国西部各州的水权系统中 ,有一种水权现在可以在私法框架中协调环境保护目标、各种取水权人的取水需求 ,这两者之间的冲突。这就是现在美国学术界广泛关注的内径流水权。内径流水权可以在私法领域保护水流的天然禀赋 ,并且排除政府以环境法为理由介入水事争端。随着环境主义在美国的破产[1] ,美国西部开始了大规模的水权裁决活动 ,通过水法院或者行政机构确认私有水权的优先权日 ,从而确立水权的优先权序列。这样水权就会真正成为属于分散的个体的、排他性的财产权。优先权日在先的水权将在枯水季节排除他人的取水权或者其他种类的用水权。因此 ,确立内径流水权在这个优先权序列中的地位 ,是环境保护目标在私法体系中 ,而不是在效率低下的各种环境保护法中 ,长久地得到维护的关键。内径流水权优先权日有 (1)判例法认定的日期 ;(2 )法律规定的日期 ;(3)转化生成的日期。在先占原则框架中扩张这种财产权可以更大程度地排除环境法的适用范围。