ESTIMATING REGIONAL SNOW WATER EQUIVALENT WITH A SIMPLE SIMULATION MODEL1

A simple simulation model designed to monitor snow-packs of the central Sierra Nevada is described. The model estimates average snow water equivalent for rectangular subregions in the area. Static subregion characteristics, daily precipitation and mean and minimum air temperatures measured at three index stations are the only needed input values. A water balance technique simulates daily snowpack changes in each subregion. Reasonable basinwide water equivalent values are produced. The procedure should be useful for estimating snow water distribution in large mountainous watersheds.     

HYDROCLIMATIC VARIABILITY IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS1

ABSTRACT: The spatial and temporal variability of hydroclimatic elements were investigated in the central and northern Rocky Mountains (Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming) during the 1951–1985 period. The three hydroclimatic elements studied were total water-year (October 1-September 30) streamflow (ST), winter (October 1-March 31) accumulated precipitation (PR), and April 1 snowpack (SN). An analysis of 14 virgin watersheds showed wide spatial djfferences in the temporal variability of SN, PR, and ST, and these were found to be caused largely by basin exposure to moist air flows. The more stable (low variability) basins were those exposed to prevailing northerly to westerly flow, while unstable (high variability) basins were exposed to occasional southwesterly to southeasterly moist flow. Snowpack was the better indicator of ST in 11 of the 14 watersheds, explaining 37 to 87 percent of the ST variance. Analysis of the spatial variability, based on all SN and PR data from across the study area, revealed 11 discrete climatic regions. Both SN and PR exhibited coherent regions of stable and unstable temporal variability. The average variability between stable and unstable regions differed by a factor of two, and the differences were best explained by the exposure of the mountain barrier to moist air flows.     

PAH deposition to snow surface

The urban snowpack effectively acts as a collection device for atmospheric-deposited PAHs. When these PAHs are flushed out in a short time interval along with springtime snowmelt, these cause shockloading to receiving waters. In order to assess the PAH deposition and accumulation in urban snowpacks, a deposition survey of PAH for the winter months of 1991-92 from the city of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada was undertaken. The results of the survey are interpreted in view of prevailing meteorology and various emission sources in the study area. The relative PAH deposition levels (to BaP) are compared with relative source emission fingerprints to examine consistency in sampling and analysis. While analyzing the PAH samples using the ASTM (1987) method, the problem of concentration levels being below the detection level was encountered. The ASTM method for PAH analysis was modified to enhance the detection limit of the PAHs by concentrating the PAH extract to very low volumes, on the order of 200-300 microL.     

冰川区积雪中NO3-与粉尘记录的对比研究 ——以天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川为例

为研究山岳冰川积雪中NO3-与粉尘记录之间的联系,利用2003~2005年间新疆天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川东支积累区的雪样,分析了雪层中NO3-与不溶微粒的对应关系.研究发现,沙尘活动季节初期,表层雪中NO3-浓度与不溶微粒浓度呈正相关,而与其平均粒径呈负相关,表明NO3-可以通过吸附在粉尘细颗粒表面远距离传输.雪层剖面中NO3-浓度峰值与污化层之间的相对位置在冬半年可基本保持稳定,但夏半年以淋溶作用为主的后沉积过程,会强烈改造NO3-与粉尘记录之间的联系.     

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS UNCERTAINTY FOR WATER RESOURCES IN THE SAN JOAQUIN RIVER BASIN,CALIFORNIA1

ABSTRACT: A climate change impacts assessment for water resources in the San Joaquin River region of California is presented. Regional climate projections are based on a 1 percent per year CO₂ increase relative to late 20th Century CO₂ conditions. Two global projections of this CO₂ increase scenario are considered (HadCM2 and PCM) during two future periods (2010 to 2039 and 2050 to 2079). HadCM2 projects faster warming than PCM. HadCM2 and PCM project wetter and drier conditions, respectively, relative to present climate. In the HadCM2 case, there would be increased reservoir inflows, increased storage limited by existing capacity, and increased releases for deliveries and river flows. In the PCM case, there would be decreased reservoir inflows, decreased storage and releases, and decreased deliveries. Impacts under either projection case cannot be regarded as more likely than the other. Most of the impacts uncertainty is attributable to the divergence in the precipitation projections. The range of assessed impacts is too broad to guide selection of mitigation projects. Regional planning agencies can respond by developing contingency strategies for these cases and applying the methodology herein to evaluate a broader set of CO₂ scenarios, land use projections, and operational assumptions. Improved agency access to climate projection information is necessary to support this effort.     

MULTI-MEDIA CONCENTRATIONS OF HEAVY METALS AND MAJOR IONS FROM URBAN AND RURAL SITES IN NEW BRUNSWICK, CANADA

Concentrations of heavy metals and major ions were measured in precipitation, snowpack, garden soils and vegetables from urban and rural sites in New Brunswick in Atlantic Canada. Atmospheric loading of mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, strontium, and vanadium need further assessment. Vanadium concentrations in precipitation, snowpack, soils and vegetables showed an urban influence. Vanadium concentrations in the snowpack ranged between <2.0 ppb at 50 kilometers from the city center to 31.4 ppb in the city. Concentrations of all heavy metals in urban soils were less than CCME remediation guidelines but selected metals exceeded the assessment benchmark non-regulatory guidelines. Major ions were consistently higher in event precipitation than the snowpack. The order of ion elution from the snowpack was NO3 > SO4 > NH4 > H > Mg > Cl > Na > K. Hydrogen ion equivalents were highest in the snowpack and precipitation from urban samples. Mean hydrogen ion concentrations ranged from 11 to 22 eq L-1 in the snowpack compared with 18 to 41 eq L-1 in event precipitation.     

The Sensitivity of California Water Resources to Climate Change Scenarios1

Abstract: Using the latest available General Circulation Model (GCM) results we present an assessment of climate change impacts on California hydrology and water resources. The approach considers the output of two GCMs, the PCM and the HadCM3, run under two different greenhouse gas (GHG) emission scenarios: the high emission A1fi and the low emission B1. The GCM output was statistically downscaled and used in the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) macroscale distributed hydrologic model to derive inflows to major reservoirs in the California Central Valley. Historical inflows used as inputs to the water resources model CalSim II were modified to represent the climate change perturbed conditions for water supply deliveries, reliability, reservoir storage and changes to variables of environmental concern. Our results show greater negative impacts to California hydrology and water resources than previous assessments of climate change impacts in the region. These impacts, which translate into smaller streamflows, lower reservoir storage and decreased water supply deliveries and reliability, will be especially pronounced later in the 21st Century and south of the San Francisco bay Delta. The importance of considering how climate change impacts vary for different temporal, spatial, and institutional conditions in addition to the average impacts is also demonstrated.     

天山典型冰川区雪冰中碳质气溶胶浓度特征研究

根据2002年与2004年在天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川与奎屯河哈希勒根51号冰川采集的粒雪与冰川冰样品,利用热/光反射法(TOR)分析得到有机碳(OC)与元素碳(EC)的浓度,并探讨了天山典型冰川区雪冰中碳质气溶胶浓度的时空特征与环境意义.结果表明,总碳(TC)浓度从高到低依次为:乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川西支雪坑(1 943 ng.g-1)>乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川东支雪坑(989 ng.g-1)>奎屯河哈希勒根51号冰川雪坑(150 ng.g-1)>乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川东支冰川冰(77 ng.g-1),OC和EC的浓度序列也较为类似;天山冰川区雪层中OC浓度平均值为557 ng.g-1,EC浓度平均值为188 ng.g-1.不同冰川积累区雪层剖面的中下部污化层附近一般都会出现碳质气溶胶浓度峰值,但某些突发性事件会使得表层雪也产生浓度峰值;在季节性碳排放(如居民采暖、农业活动等)与碳传输(如大气环流等)的影响下,雪层中碳质气溶胶浓度在7～11月间总体呈波动下降的趋势;冰川冰与粒雪间碳质气溶胶浓度可能存在着数量级的差异,这主要受到冰川所在环境、雪冰采样时空条件等因素影响;雪层表面是否存在EC对反照率有很大影响,模拟显示在波长为300～700 nm范围内反照率平均降低0.22.     

FOREST GROWTH IMPACT ON PEAK SNOW PACK MEASUREMENTS AT LONG TERM SNOW COURSES1

ABSTRACT: Snow course surveys in late winter provide stream‐flow forecasters with their best information for making water supply and flood forecasts for the subsequent spring and summer runoff period in mountainous regions of western North America. Snow survey data analyses are generally based on a 30‐year “normal” period. It is well documented that forest cover changes over time will affect snow accumulation on the ground within forests. This paper seeks to determine if forest cover changes over decades at long term snow courses decrease measured peak snow water equivalent (SWE) enough to affect runoff prediction. Annual peak SWE records were analyzed at four snow courses in two different forest types having at least 25 years of snowpack data to detect any decreases in SWE due to forest growth. No statistically significant decreases in annual peak SWE over time were found at any of these four snow courses. The wide range of annual winter precipitation and correspondingly highly variable peak snowpack accumulation, as well as many other weather and site variables, masked any minor trends in the data.