Post-development Auditing of EIA Predictive Techniques: A Spatial Analytical Approach

Despite widespread recognition that post-development auditing has the potential to provide feedback which could improve future Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), there remains a paucity of research which relates specifically to the evaluation of EIA predictive techniques, with even less progress in the development of audit methodologies. This paper describes a spatial analytical approach to post-development auditing that focuses upon the identification and analysis of the residual errors between the impacts predicted at a site using a particular predictive method and the actual impacts found to occur through monitoring. For three case studies, relevant impact predictions are tested (to determine the residual errors) and statistical models of the errors are developed in order to explore factors which may explain the performance of the predictive technique. The paper then considers the broader lessons and limitations that can be drawn out from the research both for auditing and EIA practice, including feedback on predictive techniques, the potential role of scoping decisions in generating errors in impact prediction, and the implications of uncertainty over future baseline conditions for auditing and impact prediction/interpretation.     

Physical Characterization of Biodegradable Films Based on Chitosan,Polyvinyl Alcohol and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Opuntia</Emphasis> Mucilage

This study aimed to develop and characterize biodegradable films containing mucilage, chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in different concentrations. The films were prepared by casting on glass plates using glycerol as plasticizer. Mechanical properties, water vapor and oxygen barrier, as well as the interaction with water, were measured. The compatibility of the film-forming components and the uniformity of the films were determined by zeta potential and SEM, respectively. The glycerol and mucilage allowed obtaining more hydrophilic films. The barrier properties of the films made from 100 % chitosan were similar to composed films containing PVA up to 40 %. The results of this study suggest that the interaction between chitosan and mucilage could increase water vapor permeability. The films prepared from either 100 % chitosan or PVA showed a more hydrophobic behavior as compared to the composed films. The films were homogenous since no boundary or separation of components was observed, indicating a good compatibility of the components in the films.     

Development of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of the invasive Mediterranean fanworm, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sabella spallanzanii</Emphasis>, in environmental samples

The Mediterranean fanworm, Sabella spallanzanii Gmelin 1791, was first detected in the Southern Hemisphere in the 1990s and is now abundant in many parts of southern Australia and in several locations around northern New Zealand. Once established, it can proliferate rapidly, reaching high densities with potential ecological and economic impacts. Early detection of new S. spallanzanii incursions is important to prevent its spread, guide eradication or control efforts and to increase knowledge on the species’ dispersal pathways. In this study, we developed a TaqMan probe real-time polymerase chain reaction assay targeting a region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene. The assay was validated in silico and in vitro using DNA from New Zealand and Australian Sabellidae with no cross-reactivity detected. The assay has a linear range of detection over seven orders of magnitude with a limit of detection reached at 12.4 × 10^?4 ng/μL of DNA. We analysed 145 environmental (water, sediment and biofouling) samples and obtained positive detections only from spiked samples and those collected at a port where S. spallanzanii is known to be established. This assay has the potential to enhance current morphological and molecular-based methods, through its ability to rapidly and accurately identify S. spallanzanii in environmental samples.     

Relationships between dairy slurry total solids, gas emissions, and surface crusts

Livestock slurry storages are sources of methane (CH?), nitrous oxide (NO?), and ammonia (NH?) emissions. Total solids (TS) content is an indicator of substrate availability for CH? and N?O production and NH? emissions and is related to crust formation, which can affect these gas emissions. The effect of TS on these emissions from pilot-scale slurry storages was quantified from 20 May through 16 Nov. 2010 in Nova Scotia, Canada. Emissions from six dairy slurries with TS ranging from 0.3 to 9.5% were continuously measured using flow-through steady-state chambers. Methane emissions modeled using the USEPA methodology were compared with measured data focusing on emissions when empty storages were filled, and retention times were >30 d with undegraded volatile solids (VS) remaining in the system considered available for CH? production (VS carry-over). Surface crusts formed on all the slurries. Only the slurries with TS of 3.2 and 5.8% were covered completely for ～3 mo. Nitrous oxide contributed <5% of total greenhouse gas emissions for all TS levels. Ammonia and CH? emissions increased linearly with TS despite variable crusting, suggesting substrate availability for gas production was more important than crust formation in regulating emissions over long-term storage. Modeled CH? emissions were substantially higher than measured data in the first month, and accounting for this could improve overall model performance. Carried-over VS were a CH? source in months 2 through 6. The results of this study suggest that substrate availability regulates emissions over long-term storage and that modifying the USEPA model to better describe carbon cycling is warranted.     

Determination of the emissions from an aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU) during the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX)

The emissions from a Garrett-AiResearch (now Honeywell) Model GTCP85-98CK auxiliary power unit (APU) were determined as part of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) using both JP-8 and a coal-derived Fischer Tropsch fuel (FT-2). Measurements were conducted by multiple research organizations for sulfur dioxide (SO2, total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), speciated gas-phase emissions, particulate matter (PM) mass and number, black carbon, and speciated PM. In addition, particle size distribution (PSD), number-based geometric mean particle diameter (GMD), and smoke number were also determined from the data collected. The results of the research showed PM mass emission indices (EIs) in the range of 20 to 700 mg/kg fuel and PM number EIs ranging from 0.5 x 10(15) to 5 x 10(15) particles/kg fuel depending on engine load and fuel type. In addition, significant reductions in both the SO2 and PM EIs were observed for the use of the FT fuel. These reductions were on the order of approximately 90% for SO2 and particle mass EIs and approximately 60% for the particle number EI, with similar decreases observed for black carbon. Also, the size of the particles generated by JP-8 combustion are noticeably larger than those emitted by the APU burning the FT fuel with the geometric mean diameters ranging from 20 to 50 nm depending on engine load and fuel type. Finally, both particle-bound sulfate and organics were reduced during FT-2 combustion. The PM sulfate was reduced by nearly 100% due to lack of sulfur in the fuel, with the PM organics reduced by a factor of approximately 5 as compared with JP-8.     

Vehicle emissions of radical precursors and related species observed in the 2009 SHARP campaign

The 2009 Study of Houston Atmospheric Radical Precursors (SHARP) field campaign had several components that yielded information on the primary vehicular emissions of formaldehyde (HCHO) and nitrous acid (HONO), in addition to many other species. Analysis of HONO measurements at the Moody Tower site in Houston, TX, yielded emission ratios of HONO to the vehicle exhaust tracer species NO_x and CO of 14 pptv/ppbv and 2.3 pptv/ppbv, somewhat smaller than recently published results from the Galleria site, although evidence is presented that the Moody Tower values should be upper limits to the true ratios of directly emitted HONO, and are consistent with ratios used in current standard emissions models. Several other Moody Tower emission ratios are presented, in particular a value for HCHO/CO of 2.4 pptv/ppbv. Considering only estimates of random errors, this would be significantly lower than a previous value, though the small sample size and possible systematic differences should be taken into account. Emission factors for CO, NO_x, and HCHO, as well as various volatile organic compounds (VOCs), were derived from mobile laboratory measurements both in the Washburn Tunnel and in on-road exhaust plume observations. These two sets of results and others reported in the literature all agree well, and are substantially larger than the CO, NO_x, and HCHO emission factors derived from the emission ratios reported from the Galleria site.

Implications: Emission factors for the species measured in the various components of the 2009 SHARP campaign in Houston, TX, including HCHO, HONO, CO, CO₂, nitrogen oxides, and VOCs, are needed to support regional air quality monitoring. Components of the SHARP campaign measured these species in several different ways, each with their own potential for systematic errors and differences in vehicle fleets sampled. Comparisons between data sets suggest that differences in sampling place and time may result in quite different emission factors, while also showing that different vehicle mixes can yield surprisingly similar emission factors.     

Evolution of vehicle exhaust particles in the atmosphere

Aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) measurements are used to characterize the evolution of exhaust particulate matter (PM) properties near and downwind of vehicle sources. The AMS provides time-resolved chemically speciated mass loadings and mass-weighted size distributions of nonrefractory PM smaller than 1 microm (NRPM1). Source measurements of aircraft PM show that black carbon particles inhibit nucleation by serving as condensation sinks for the volatile and semi-volatile exhaust gases. Real-world source measurements of ground vehicle PM are obtained by deploying an AMS aboard a mobile laboratory. Characteristic features of the exhaust PM chemical composition and size distribution are discussed. PM mass and number concentrations are used with above-background gas-phase carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations to calculate on-road emission factors for individual vehicles. Highly variable ratios between particle number and mass concentrations are observed for individual vehicles. NRPM1 mass emission factors measured for on-road diesel vehicles are approximately 50% lower than those from dynamometer studies. Factor analysis of AMS data (FA-AMS) is applied for the first time to map variations in exhaust PM mass downwind of a highway. In this study, above-background vehicle PM concentrations are highest close to the highway and decrease by a factor of 2 by 200 m away from the highway. Comparison with the gas-phase CO2 concentrations indicates that these vehicle PM mass gradients are largely driven by dilution. Secondary aerosol species do not show a similar gradient in absolute mass concentrations; thus, their relative contribution to total ambient PM mass concentrations increases as a function of distance from the highway. FA-AMS of single particle and ensemble data at an urban receptor site shows that condensation of these secondary aerosol species onto vehicle exhaust particles results in spatial and temporal evolution of the size and composition of vehicle exhaust PM on urban and regional scales.     

Ammonia emissions from field-simulated cattle defecation and urination

Atmospheric ammonia (NH(3)) is a concern because of its environmental impact. The greatest contribution to atmospheric NH(3) comes from agricultural sources. This study quantified NH(3) volatilization from cattle defecation and urination on pasture under field conditions in Auburn, Alabama. Treatments consisted of beef feces, dairy feces, dairy urine, and a control. The experiment was conducted during four seasons from June 2003 to April 2004. Fresh feces or urine was applied onto grass swards, and NH(3) volatilization was measured up to 14 d after application using an inverted chamber method. Dairy urine was the only significant source of NH(3). Ammonia nitrogen (N) loss differed among seasons, ranging from 1.8% in winter to 20.9% during the warmer summer months. Cumulative volatilization was best described in this experiment by the equation % NH(3)-N loss = N(max) (1 - e(-ct))(i). The highest rate of NH(3) volatilization generally occurred within 24 h. This study suggests that NH(3) volatilization from cattle urine on pasture is significant and varies with season, whereas NH(3) volatilization from cattle feces is negligible.     

Is there a place for social capital in the psychology of health and place?

The field of environmental psychology is primely placed to further understanding of the way in which social capital influences or is influenced by the context and characteristics of neighbourhood environments, but has been one of the quieter voices in the cacophony of social capital discourse over the last decade. While there is increasing research interest in area and neighbourhood variations in social capital, the mechanisms and causal pathways through which physical environments, social capital and health may be related are not yet clear. More refined unpacking of the relationship between social capital and neighbourhood design, features and settings is required to identify practical intervention points for preserving, fostering and harnessing social capital within communities. Through a review of literature, this paper explores whether there is a place for social capital in the psychology of place and considers the contribution that environmental psychology and related disciplines could make to future social capital research and applications.     

High-impact conservation: invasive mammal eradications from the islands of western México

Islands harbor a disproportionate amount of the earth's biodiversity, but a significant portion has been lost due in large part to the impacts of invasive mammals. Fortunately, invasive mammals can be routinely removed from islands, providing a powerful tool to prevent extinctions and restore ecosystems. Given that invasive mammals are still present on more than 80% of the world's major islands groups and remain a premier threat to the earth's biodiversity, it is important to disseminate replicable, scaleable models to eradicate invasive mammals from islands. We report on a successful model from western México during the past decade. A collaborative effort between nongovernmental organizations, academic biologists, Mexican government agencies, and local individuals has resulted in major restoration efforts in three island archipelagos. Forty-two populations of invasive mammals have been eradicated from 26 islands. For a cost of USD 21,615 per colony and USD 49,370 per taxon, 201 seabird colonies and 88 endemic terrestrial taxa have been protected, respectively. These conservation successes are a result of an operational model with three main components: i) a tri-national collaboration that integrates research, prioritization, financing, public education, policy work, capacity building, conservation action, monitoring, and evaluation; ii) proactive and dedicated natural resource management agencies; and iii) effective partnerships with academic researchers in Mexico and the United States. What is now needed is a detailed plan to eradicate invasive mammals from the remaining islands in the region that integrates the needed additional financing, capacity, technical advances, and policy issues. Island conservation in western Mexico provides an effective approach that can be readily applied to other archipelagos where conservation efforts have been limited.