An automated wet deposition system to compare the effects of reduced and oxidised N on ombrotrophic bog species: Practical considerations

Critical N loads for ombrotrophic bogs, which often contain rare and N-sensitive plants (especially those in lower plant groups: lichens, mosses and liverworts), are based on very few experimental data from measured, low background N deposition areas. Additionally the relative effects of reduced versus oxidised N are largely unknown. This paper describes an automated field exposure system (30 km S. of Edinburgh, Scotland) for treating ombrotrophic bog vegetation with fine droplets of oxidised N (NaNO₃) and reduced N (NH₄Cl). Whim Moss exists in an area of low ambient N deposition (ca. 8 kg N ha^?1 y^?1), the sources and quantification of which are described. The wet N treatment system is run continuously, and is controlled/activated by wind speed and rainfall to provide a unique simulation of “real worl” treatment patterns (no rain=no treatment). Simulated precipitation is supplied at ionic concentrations below 4 mM in rainwater collected on site. Treatments provide a replicated dose response to 16, 32 and 64 kg N ha^?1 y^?1 adjusted for ambient deposition (8 kg N ha^?1 y^?1). The 16 and 64 kg N ha^?1 y^?1 are duplicated with a P+K supplement. Baseline soil chemistry and foliar nutrient status was established for all 44 plots for Calluna vulgaris, Sphagnum capillifolium, Hypnum jutlandicum and Cladonia portentosa.     

Quantifying dry NH3 deposition to an ombrotrophic bog from an automated NH3 field release system

Providing an accurate estimate of the dry component of N deposition to low N background, semi-natural habitats, such as bogs and upland moors dominated by Calluna vulgaris is difficult, but essential to relate nitrogen deposition to effects in these communities. To quantify the effects of NH₃ inputs to moorland vegetation growing on a bog at a field scale, a field release NH₃ fumigation system was established at Whim Moss (Scottish Borders) in 2002. Gaseous NH₃ from a line source was released along of a 60 m transect, when meteorological conditions (wind speed >2.5 m s^?1 and wind direction in the sector 180–215°) were met, thereby providing a profile of decreasing NH₃ concentration with distance from the source. In a complementary study, using a NH₃ flux chamber system, the relationships between NH₃ concentrations and cuticular resistances were quantified for a range of NH₃ concentrations and micrometeorological conditions for moorland vegetation. Cuticular resistances increased with NH₃ concentration from 11 s m^?1 at 3.0 μg m^?3 to 30 s m^?1 at 30 μg m^?3. The NH₃ concentration data and the concentration-dependent canopy resistance are used to calculate NH₃ deposition taking into account leaf surface wetness. The implications of using an NH₃ concentration-dependent cuticular resistance and the importance for refining critical loads are discussed.     

Correlating the spatial distribution of atmospheric ammonia with δ15n values at an ammonia release site

A field ammonia (NH₃) release experiment and open top chambers containing moorland monoliths continuously fumigated with NH₃ or sprayed with NH₄Cl were used to assess the potential for using δ¹⁵N values in determining the area of influence around a point NH₃ emission source. δ¹⁵N values are being increasingly used as environmental tracers and we tested the hypothesis that the δ¹⁵N signal from an NH₃ emission source is observable in nearby vegetation. Using modified monitoring devices, atmospheric NH₃ concentrations were found to decrease with distance from source, with δ¹⁵N values also reflecting this trend, producing a signal shift with changing concentration. Open top chamber studies of δ¹⁵N values of Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull indicated a correlation with deposition treatments in current year shoots. Analysis of Calluna shoots from the NH₃ release showed a similar trend of δ¹⁵N enrichment. Significant linear correlations between δ¹⁵N and percent N in plant material were found, both in the controlled conditions of the open top chambers and at the NH₃ release site, illustrating the possible use of this technique in N deposition biomonitoring.     

Linking field experiments to long-term simulation of impacts of nitrogen deposition on heathlands and moorlands

The results from three long-term field manipulation studies of the impacts of increased nitrogen deposition (0–120 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1) on lowland and upland heathlands in the UK were compared, to test if common responses are observed. Consistent increases in Calluna foliar N content and decreases in litter C:N ratios were found across all sites, while increases in N leaching were not observed at any site over the range 0–80 kg ha^?1 yr^?1. However, the response of Calluna biomass did vary between sites, possibly reflecting site differences in nutrient status and management histories. Five versions of a simulation model of heathland responses to N were developed, each reflecting different assumptions about the fate and turnover of soil N. Model outputs supported the deduction from mass balance calculations at two of the field sites that N additions have resulted in an increase in immobilisation; the latter was needed to prevent the model overestimating measured N leaching. However, this version of the model significantly underestimated Calluna biomass. Model versions, which included uptake of organic N by Callunaand re-mobilisation of N from the soil organic store provided some improvement in the fit between modelled and field biomass data, but re-mobilisation also led to an overestimation of N leaching. Quantification of these processes and their response to increased N deposition are therefore critical to interpreting experimental data and predicting the long-term impacts of atmospheric deposition on heathlands and moorlands.     

A cross-country comparison of short- and long-term effects of an ergonomic intervention on musculoskeletal discomfort, eyestrain and psychosocial stress in VDT operators: selected aspects of the international project.

Three groups of data entry female visual display terminal (VDT) workers from Norway (n = 30), Poland (n = 33) and the USA (n = 29) were compared. Before intervention, the Norwegian group reported more neck pain compared with the Polish group. The Polish group reported less shoulder pain than both the U.S. and the Norwegian groups. The clinical examination documented fewer symptoms and signs of musculoskeletal illness among the Polish participants compared with the Norwegian and the U.S. groups. After intervention, the Norwegian group reported a reduction in neck pain while the U.S. group reported a reduction in shoulder pain. The Polish group reported an increase in neck, shoulder and forearm pain at follow-up compared to after intervention. The Polish group recorded higher flexion of the upper arm at follow-up parallel with an increase of pain in the upper part of the body. Visual discomfort showed variable results in the 3 countries.     

Neurophysiological Effects Induced in the Nervous Tissue by Low-Frequency, Pulsed Magnetic Fields

Summary The influence of pulsed magnetic fields (PMF) on the properties of nervous tissue was investigated. Hippocampal slices or synaptosomes obtained from hippocampal tissue were used as model systems. The amplitude of potentials recorded in vitro from one of the hippocampal pathways (Schaffer collaterals that use glutamate as a neurotransmitter) was employed as a measure of the influence of magnetic fields on synaptic efficiency. The synaptic glutamate turnover and radioactive calcium accumulation were used as markers of the PMF influence on biochemistry of synaptic mechanisms. The exposure of hippocampal slices for 30 min to PMF amplified evoked potentials. While the frequency of 0.16 Hz exerted the strongest effect, lower (0.01, 0.07, 0.03 Hz) and higher (0.5 Hz) frequencies were much less effective. The enhancement of the neuronal excitability was correlated with significant increase in the neuronal spontaneous activity mediated by electrical synapses. The PMF-induced changes in the excitability of the tissue were accompanied by an increase in the synaptic turnover of glutamate. The release of radioactive D-Aspartate (a glutamate analog used as a marker for glutamate turnover) from the slices, and its uptake by synaptosomes were enhanced, and reduced respectively, following the stimulation with pulsed magnetic fields. The frequency which was the most efficient in amplification of evoked potentials (0.16 Hz) was also the most effective in the modulation of the release and uptake processes. The PMF-induced changes in neurotransmitter turnover coincided with an increase in ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ accumulation observed in hippocampal slices exposed to PMF.     

Quantifying and Evaluating Ecosystem Health: A Case Study from Moreton Bay, Australia

As part of the program monitoring the ecosystem health of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia, we developed a means for assessing ecosystem health that allows quantitative evaluation and spatial representations of the assessments. The management objectives for achieving ecosystem health were grouped into ecosystem objectives, water quality objectives, and human health objectives. For the first two groups, aspects of the ecosystem (e.g., trophic status) were identified, and an indicator was chosen for each aspect. Reference values for each indicator were derived from management objectives and compared with the mapped survey values. Subregions for which the indicator statistic was equal to or better than the assigned reference value are referred to as “compliant zones.” High-resolution surface maps were created from spatial predictions on a fine hexagonal grid for each of the indicators. Eight reporting subregions were established based on the depth and predicted residence times of the water. Within each reporting subregion, the proportion that was compliant was calculated. These results then were averaged to create an integrated ecosystem health index. The ratings by a team of ecosystem experts and the calculated ecosystem health indices had good correspondence, providing assurance that the approach was internally consistent, and that the management objectives covered the relevant biologic issues for the region. This method of calculating and mapping ecosystem health, relating it directly to management objectives, may have widespread applicability for ecosystem assessment.     

Prediction of zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper availability to wheat in contaminated soils using chemical speciation, diffusive gradients in thin films, extraction, and isotopic dilution techniques

To predict the availability of metals to plants, it is important to understand both solution- and solid-phase processes in the soil, including the kinetics of metal release from its binding agent (ligand and/or particle). The present study examined the speciation and availability of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in a range of well-equilibrated metal-contaminated soils from diverse sources using several techniques as a basis for predicting metal uptake by plants. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was grown in 13 metal-contaminated soils and metal tissue concentrations (Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu) in plant shoots were compared with total soil metal concentrations, total soluble metal, and free metal activities (pM2+) in soil pore waters, 0.01 M CaCl2-extractable metal concentrations, E values measured by isotope dilution, and effective metal concentrations, C(E), measured by diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT). In the DGT technique, ions are dynamically removed by their diffusion through a gel to a binding resin, while E values represent the isotopically exchangeable (labile) metal pools. Free metal activities (Zn2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+) in soil pore waters were determined using a Donnan dialysis technique. Plant Zn and Cd concentrations were highly related to C(E), while relationships for Zn and Cd with respect to the other measures of metals in the soils were generally lower, except for CaCl2-extractable Cd. These results suggest that the kinetically labile solid-phase pool of metal, which is included in the DGT measurement, played an important role in Zn and Cd uptake by wheat along with the labile metal in soil solution. Plant Pb concentrations were highly related to both soil pore water concentrations and C(E), indicating that supply from the solid phase may not be so important for Pb. Predictions of Cu uptake by wheat from these soils by the various measures of Cu were generally poor, except surprisingly for total Cu.     

In situ ground water denitrification in stratified, permeable soils underlying riparian wetlands

The ground water denitrification capacity of riparian zones in deep soils, where substantial ground water can flow through low-gradient stratified sediments, may affect watershed nitrogen export. We hypothesized that the vertical pattern of ground water denitrification in riparian hydric soils varies with geomorphic setting and follows expected subsurface carbon distribution (i.e., abrupt decline with depth in glacial outwash vs. negligible decline with depth in alluvium). We measured in situ ground water denitrification rates at three depths (65, 150, and 300 cm) within hydric soils at four riparian sites (two per setting) using a 15N-enriched nitrate "push-pull" method. No significant difference was found in the pattern and magnitude of denitrification when grouping sites by setting. At three sites there was no significant difference in denitrification among depths. Correlations of site characteristics with denitrification varied with depth. At 65 cm, ground water denitrification correlated with variables associated with the surface ecosystem (temperature, dissolved organic carbon). At deeper depths, rates were significantly higher closer to the stream where the subsoil often contains organically enriched deposits that indicate fluvial geomorphic processes. Mean rates ranged from 30 to 120 microg N kg(-1) d(-1) within 10 m versus <1 to 40 microg N kg(-1) d(-1) at >30 m from the stream. High denitrification rates observed in hydric soils, down to 3 m within 10 m of the stream in both alluvial and glacial outwash settings, argue for the importance of both settings in evaluating the significance of riparian wetlands in catchment-scale N dynamics.     

Nitrate losses in subsurface drainage from a corn-soybean rotation as affected by fall and spring application of nitrogen and nitrapyrin

Substantial amounts of NO3 from agricultural crop production systems on poorly drained soils can be transported to surface water via subsurface drainage. A field study was conducted from the fall of 1993 through 2000 on a tile-drained Canisteo clay loam soil (fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, calcareous, mesic Typic Endoaquoll) to determine the influence of fall vs. spring application of N and nitrapyrin [NP; 2-chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine] on NO3 losses from a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation. Four anhydrous ammonia treatments (fall N, fall N + NP, spring preplant N, and spring N + NP) were replicated four times and applied at 135 kg N ha(-1) for corn on individual drainage plots. Drainage occurred in all seven years. Seventy-one percent of the annual drainage and 75% of the annual NO3 loss occurred in April, May, and June. Fifty-four percent of the NO3 lost in the drainage occurred during the corn phase and 46% during the soybean phase. Annual flow-weighted NO3-N concentrations for the fall, fall + NP, spring, and spring + NP treatments averaged 14.3, 11.5, 10.7, and 11.3 mg L(-1) during the corn phase but annual NO3-N concentrations were still > or =10 mg L(-1) in three of six years for the spring preplant treatment. Averaged across the six rotation cycles, flow-normalized NO3-N losses ranked in the order: fall N > spring N + NP > fall N + NP > spring N. Under these conditions, NO3 losses in subsurface drainage from a corn-soybean rotation can be reduced 14% by spring N and 10% by late fall N + NP compared with fall-applied N. Nitrate losses were not appreciably reduced by adding NP to spring preplant N.