The effectiveness of forecast-based humanitarian assistance in anticipation of extreme winters: a case study of vulnerable herders in Mongolia

This paper presents evidence relating to a forecast-based cash and non-food item distribution among vulnerable herder households during the 2017–18 dzud (extreme winter) season in Mongolia, and analyses the results of a quasi-experimental study evaluating its impacts. An innovative approach in disaster risk reduction, forecast-based financing (FbF) can have short- and long-term benefits to vulnerable households but remains understudied. The paper contributes information on a multimodal FbF programme offering one-off cash grants and in-kind veterinary kits. The data found significant effects of reduced mortality and increased offspring survival in some types of livestock, and that the timing of FbF assistance is crucial, as reported early assistance correlated to positive outcomes in terms of reduced animal mortality. These findings can be used to design more effective FbF interventions, to understand better the appropriateness of FbF designs, and to use early warnings and early actions to help people prepare and withstand disasters such as dzuds.     

In Situ flushing of contaminated soils from a refinery: Organic compounds and metal removals

This article demonstrates the applicability of in situ flushing for the remediation of soil contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons at a Mexican refinery. The initial average total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration for the demonstration field test was 55,156 g/kg. After six weeks of in situ flushing with alternate periods of water and water/surfactant, an average concentration of 1,407 mg/kg was reached, achieving a total removal efficiency of 98 percent. At the end of the process, no hydrocarbons such as diesel; gasoline; benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene (BTEX); or petroleum aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were found. Iron washing achieved a removal efficiency of 70 percent, and for vanadium, the removal efficiency was 94.4 percent. The volume of soil treated was 41.6 m³ (38 m²), equivalent to 69.5 tons of soil. A rough calculation of the process costs estimated a total cost of $104.20/m³ ($114.00/m²). Our research indicates that there are a few studies demonstrating in situ flushing experiences under field conditions where both organic (TPH, diesel, gasoline, PAHs, BTEX) and metal (iron and vanadium) removals are reported. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Costs of the Wastewater Standard in Pig Production in Mexico

The objective of this article is to address the environmental costs of pig farms in the La Piedad region Mexico, through an analysis of the standard on wastewater discharges to national water bodies. Field work was carried out from April to September 1999; a survey was conducted on 23 farms and samples of wastewater were taken on 11 farms. Pig production is the third most important system in Mexican livestock production. Heterogeneity in production systems, dependence on imported inputs (genetics and feed grains), and weak internalization of environmental costs are the main characteristics of pig production in Mexico. With no specific environmental regulations on intensive livestock activities at the municipal or state levels, Mexican Official Standard 001 on wastewater discharges is the only environmental obligation that pig farms must meet. Standard 001 on wastewater contains the maximum permissible limits for 20 contaminant parameters, and is based on a cost-benefit analysis that points to secondary treatment for the regulation’s economic viability. Investment in treatment systems and the fees that pig producers must pay when they fail to comply with the limits stipulated in the regulation, are estimated assessed as an approach to environmental costs. In order to remain within the limits in the standard, pig farms must invest in tertiary treatment, and that makes meeting the standard unaffordable for this sector.     

Canopy profiles of photosynthetic parameters under elevated CO2 and N fertilization in a poplar plantation

A poplar plantation has been exposed to an elevated CO2 concentration for 5 years using the free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) technique. Even after such a long period of exposure, leaves of Populus x euramericana have not shown clear signs of photosynthetic acclimation. Only at the end of the growing season for shade leaves was a decrease of maximum velocity of carboxylation (Vcmax) observed. Maximum electron transport rate (Jmax) was increased by FACE treatment in July. Assimilation rates at CO2 partial pressure of 400 (A400) and 600 (A600) micromol mol(-1) were not significantly different under FACE treatment. Most notably FACE significantly decreased stomatal conductance (g(s)) both on upper and lower canopy leaves. N fertilization increased N content in the leaves on mass basis (Nm) and specific leaf area (SLA) in both CO2 treatments but did not influence the photosynthetic parameters. These data show that in poplar plantations the long-term effects of elevated CO2 on photosynthesis do not differ considerably from the short-term ones even with N deposition.     

Measurement of unregulated emissions: Some heavy duty diesel engine results

Development of analytical capabilities to evaluate unregulated emissions are discussed. The sampling and analysis methods along with some problem areas are included. Results obtained on three heavy-duty diesel engines are reported. Emphasis was placed on analysis of the particulate fraction including the solvent extractable material. Preliminary experiments suggest appreciable quantities of organic extract and BaP pass through the primary filter. Other species analyzed to obtain a baseline for emission reduction research included aldehydes, sulfates, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide. Of primary concern is the proper assessment of the results.     

Palatability of autotrophic dinoflagellates to newly hatched larval crabs

To determine the general palatability of autotrophic dinoflagellates to newly hatched crab larvae and whether there are taxonomic, predator/prey size relationships, or toxicity components to their ability to discriminate among dinoflagellates, larvae of six species of crabs from two families were fed 16 species/strains of dinoflagellates from three orders. Dinoflagellate cell length ranged from 18 to 50 µm, and toxic and non-toxic species/strains were included. Experiments measuring incidence of prey ingestion, grazing rates on individual constituents of selected prey combinations, and development on one toxic species shown to be readily ingested were conducted between 2000 and 2002. Thirteen of sixteen dinoflagellates were palatable to larvae, with no consistent pattern of prey discrimination based on taxonomic affinity, toxicity, larval hatching season, or predator/prey size relationships. Although the three dinoflagellates not ingested were toxic, three other toxic species/strains were ingested, with accelerated mortality occurring in the one case. Ingestion of non-favored prey occurred only at very low rates when mixed with readily ingested prey, indicating selectivity. Larvae hatching in winter generally ingested dinoflagellates as readily as did zoeae hatched in spring and summer. Newly hatched larvae ingested a wide variety of dinoflagellates, while discriminating among related species. Such discrimination will not always prevent larval ingestion of prey that will result in mortality.Communicated by J.P. Grassle, New Brunswick     

Reef coral reproduction in the eastern Pacific: Costa Rica,Panamá, and Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). II. Poritidae

A comparative study of the reproductive ecology of the zooxanthellate, scleractinian corals Porites lobata Dana and P. panamensis Verrill was conducted from 1985 to 1991 in eastern Pacific reef environments that were severly impacted by the 1982–1983 El Niño warming events. P. lobata, a presumed broadcast spawner of large colony size, is widely distributed in the equatorial eastern Pacific, whereas P. panamensis, a brooder of small colony size, is abundant only on some reefs in Panamá. Both species were gonochoric with nearly 1:1 sex ratios in large study populations except for P. lobata at Caño Island that had 14% hermaphroditic colonies. Mature, unfertilized oocytes contained numerous zooxanthellae in both Porites species, and all planula developmental stages contained zooxanthellae in P. panamensis. Year-round sampling revealed high proportions of colonies with gonads, ranging from 30 to 68% in P. lobata and from 60 to 68% in P. panamensis. No clear relationship between numbers of reproductive colonies and the thermal stability of the habitat was evident in P. lobata: percent colonies with gonads at non-upwelling sites was 48 to 68% at Caño Island (Costa Rica) and Uva Island (Panamá), and at upwelling sites 30 to 50% at Saboga Island and Taboga Island (Panamá), and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Similarly, 90% of all P. panamensis colonies were reproductive at Uva Island (a non-upwelling site), and 86% were reproductive at Taboga Island (an upwelling site). Upwelling at Taboga Island is seasonal, nevertheless P. panamensis produced mature gonads or planulae over most of the year (11 mo), whereas P. lobata exhibited reproductive activity during only 2 mo (May and June). No clear lunar periodicity was observed in P. panamensis (Taboga Island), but a high proportion of P. lobata showed increased gonadal development around full and new moon, especially at Caño and Uva Islands. Estimated fecundities were relatively high for P. lobata at Caño (4000 eggs cm^-2 yr^-1) and Uva (5200 eggs cm^-2 yr^-1) Islands, and notably low (70 to 110 eggs cm^-2 yr^-1) in the Galápagos Islands. P. panamensis mean fecundity at Taboga Island was 720 planulae cm^-2 yr^-1 or 4.0 mm³ cm^-2 yr^-1, which was lower than the egg volume production of P. lobata at Caño and Uva Islands (7.0 to 10.0 mm³ cm^-2 yr^-1). The capacity of P. lobata and P. panamensis to reproduce sexually supports the notion that eastern Pacific coral reef recovery may not be dependent on long-distance dispersal from central Pacific areas. However, sexual recruits of P. lobata are absent or uncommon at all eastern Pacific study sites while recruits of P. panamensis were common to abundant only at the Uva Island study site. Asexual fragmentation in P. lobata augments recruitment locally, but plays no role in P. panamensis recruitment.