Surface ozone background in the United States: Canadian and Mexican pollution influences

We use a global chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) with 1° × 1° horizontal resolution to quantify the effects of anthropogenic emissions from Canada, Mexico, and outside North America on daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations in US surface air. Simulations for summer 2001 indicate mean North American and US background concentrations of 26 ± 8 ppb and 30 ± 8 ppb, as obtained by eliminating anthropogenic emissions in North America vs. in the US only. The US background never exceeds 60 ppb in the model. The Canadian and Mexican pollution enhancement averages 3 ± 4 ppb in the US in summer but can be occasionally much higher in downwind regions of the northeast and southwest, peaking at 33 ppb in upstate New York (on a day with 75 ppb total ozone) and 18 ppb in southern California (on a day with 68 ppb total ozone). The model is successful in reproducing the observed variability of ozone in these regions, including the occurrence and magnitude of high-ozone episodes influenced by transboundary pollution. We find that exceedances of the 75 ppb US air quality standard in eastern Michigan, western New York, New Jersey, and southern California are often associated with Canadian and Mexican pollution enhancements in excess of 10 ppb. Sensitivity simulations with 2020 emission projections suggest that Canadian pollution influence in the Northeast US will become comparable in magnitude to that from domestic power plants.     

Quantifying species recovery and conservation success to develop an IUCN Green List of Species

Stopping declines in biodiversity is critically important, but it is only a first step toward achieving more ambitious conservation goals. The absence of an objective and practical definition of species recovery that is applicable across taxonomic groups leads to inconsistent targets in recovery plans and frustrates reporting and maximization of conservation impact. We devised a framework for comprehensively assessing species recovery and conservation success. We propose a definition of a fully recovered species that emphasizes viability, ecological functionality, and representation; and use counterfactual approaches to quantify degree of recovery. This allowed us to calculate a set of 4 conservation metrics that demonstrate impacts of conservation efforts to date (conservation legacy); identify dependence of a species on conservation actions (conservation dependence); quantify expected gains resulting from conservation action in the medium term (conservation gain); and specify requirements to achieve maximum plausible recovery over the long term (recovery potential). These metrics can incentivize the establishment and achievement of ambitious conservation targets. We illustrate their use by applying the framework to a vertebrate, an invertebrate, and a woody and an herbaceous plant. Our approach is a preliminary framework for an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Green List of Species, which was mandated by a resolution of IUCN members in 2012. Although there are several challenges in applying our proposed framework to a wide range of species, we believe its further development, implementation, and integration with the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species will help catalyze a positive and ambitious vision for conservation that will drive sustained conservation action.     

Amino acids in dew – origin and seasonal variation

At two sites in the Armenhof district, 10 km east of Fulda, Germany, dew samples were collected from June 1996 to June 1997 and investigated for free and protein-bound amino acids. On account of the high pollen content, at the beginning of June 1996 and in May 1997 total amino acid concentrations were 53–390 μmol l⁻¹, in one sample 922 μmol l⁻¹. At other times the concentration in dew was 8–164 μmol l⁻¹. On 4 and 5 June 1996 the diluted free amino acid fraction (DFAA) of the total hydrolysed amino acids (THAA) at both sites amounted to 35–44% and was predominantly arginine, proline and glutamine/glutamate. Likewise on 11 March 1997 the fraction of DFAA was found to be 39.5% with extremely high arginine and proline fractions. At other times the DFAA-fraction was in the range 14–26%. From July 1996 to June 1997 the amino acid concentrations in the vapours rising from a meadow were also measured and it ranged from 8 to 51 μmol l⁻¹. From July to October 1996 the amino acid composition in the hydrolysates of dew samples and meadow vapours collected overnight were almost identical. The DFAA fraction in the condensation water collected overnight from the meadow varied from 18 to 40%. From 4 to 6 June 1996, on 11 and 13 March 1997 and in the period 16–20 May 1997, the amino acid distribution in dew showed much variation. The percentage fraction of arginine and proline in the hydrolysate increased greatly, whereas that of glycine and serine decreased. The large increase in proline and arginine in hydrolysate is attributable solely to the large amounts of free arginine and proline. This effect occurred in both 1996 and 1997 over several days at both sites at any one time and therefore appears confirmed.     

Linking conservation and welfare: A theoretical model with application to Nepal

Theoretical articles linking conservation and welfare find a negative relationship between these two variables while empirical studies show that land protection may be positively related to welfare. Several authors attribute this empirical result to the development of ecotourism in protected areas. We thus argue that the gap between the theory and existing empirical results is partly explained by the fact that most theoretical models do not account for a productive activity on protected land. Therefore, we develop a theoretical model in which conservation allows developing an alternative sector and show that the relationship between conservation and welfare is U-shaped. We test this theoretical prediction using Nepalese data and find that conservation combined with ecotourism is indeed positively related to local welfare.     

Aerially guided leak detection and repair: A pilot field study for evaluating the potential of methane emission detection and cost-effectiveness

Novel aerial methane (CH₄) detection technologies were used in this study to identify anomalously high-emitting oil and gas (O&G) facilities and to guide ground-based “leak detection and repair” (LDAR) teams. This approach has the potential to enable a rapid and effective inspection of O&G facilities under voluntary or regulatory LDAR programs to identify and mitigate anomalously large CH₄ emissions from a disproportionately small number of facilities. This is the first study of which the authors are aware to deploy, evaluate, and compare the CH₄ detection volumes and cost-effectiveness of aerially guided and purely ground-based LDAR techniques. Two aerial methods, the Kairos Aerospace infrared CH₄ column imaging and the Scientific Aviation in situ aircraft CH₄ mole fraction measurements, were tested during a 2-week period in the Fayetteville Shale region contemporaneously with conventional ground-based LDAR. We show that aerially guided LDAR can be at least as cost-effective as ground-based LDAR, but several variable parameters were identified that strongly affect cost-effectiveness and which require field research and improvements beyond this pilot study. These parameters include (i) CH₄ minimum dectectable limit of aerial technologies, (ii) emission rate size distributions of sources, (iii) remote distinction of fixable versus nonfixable CH₄ sources (“leaks” vs. CH₄ emissions occurring by design), and (iv) the fraction of fixable sources to total CH₄ emissions. Suggestions for future study design are provided.

Implications: Mitigation of methane leaks from existing oil and gas operations currently relies on on-site inspections of all applicable facilities at a prescribed frequency. This approach is labor- and cost-intensive, especially because a majority of oil and gas–related methane emissions originate from a disproportionately small number of facilities and components. We show for the first time in real-world conditions how aerial methane measurements can identify anomalously high-emitting facilities to enable a rapid, focused, and directed ground inspection of these facilities. The aerially guided approach can be more cost-effective than current practices, especially when implementing the aircraft deployment improvements discussed here.     

Background ozone levels of air entering the west coast of the US and assessment of longer-term changes

An analysis of surface ozone measurements at a west coast site in northern California (Trinidad Head) demonstrates that this location is well situated to sample air entering the west coast of the US from the Pacific Ocean. During the seasonal maximum in the spring, this location regularly observes hourly average ozone mixing ratios 50 ppbv in air that is uninfluenced by the North American continent. Mean daytime values in the spring exceed 40 ppbv. A location in southern California (Channel Islands National Park) demonstrates many of the characteristics during the spring as Trinidad Head in terms of air flow patterns and ozone amounts suggesting that background levels of ozone entering southern California from the Pacific Ocean are similar to those in northern California. Two inland locations (Yreka and Lassen Volcanic National Park) in northern California with surface ozone data records of 20 years or more are more difficult to interpret because of possible influences of local or regional changes. They show differing results for the long-term trend during the spring. The 10-year ozone vertical profile measurements obtained with weekly ozonesondes at Trinidad Head show no significant longer-term change in tropospheric ozone.     

A simple and inexpensive dilution system for the TSI 3007 condensation particle counter

The aim of this study was to develop a dilution system which would permit the TSI 3007 condensation particle counter (CPC) to operate within its maximum detectable concentration threshold, even when sampling extremely high submicron particle concentrations. The intention of this was to provide a better alternative to coincidence correction factors, which have several limitations; the most significant of which being that they are only applicable to a comparatively low concentration and also that the components of the unit are exposed to concentrations beyond their operating specifications. To achieve the aim, a bifurcation-based system was developed and tested repeatedly at concentrations of unleaded petrol combustion particles up to ∼8.5×10⁶ p cm⁻³. The benchmark particle concentration was measured by a TSI 3022A CPC. The results of the tests showed that the nominal dilution ratio based on flow partitioning was applicable up to ∼3.5×10⁵ p cm⁻³, after which particle losses to a capillary tube primarily caused a large increase in apparent dilution. These losses were consistent throughout all tests and allowed the unit to remain below the maximum detection threshold, even under the extreme challenge concentrations encountered. This work represents a useful extension of the operating range of the TSI 3007, without significantly compromising either the quality of data collected or the internal components of the unit.     

The importance of Indigenous Peoples’ lands for the conservation of terrestrial mammals

Indigenous Peoples’ lands cover over one-quarter of Earth's surface, a significant proportion of which is still free from industrial-level human impacts. As a result, Indigenous Peoples and their lands are crucial for the long-term persistence of Earth's biodiversity and ecosystem services. Yet, information on species composition on these lands globally remains largely unknown. We conducted the first comprehensive analysis of terrestrial mammal composition across mapped Indigenous lands based on data on area of habitat (AOH) for 4460 mammal species assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We overlaid each species’ AOH on a current map of Indigenous lands and found that 2695 species (60% of assessed mammals) had ≥10% of their ranges on Indigenous Peoples’ lands and 1009 species (23%) had >50% of their ranges on these lands. For threatened species, 473 (47%) occurred on Indigenous lands with 26% having >50% of their habitat on these lands. We also found that 935 mammal species (131 categorized as threatened) had ≥ 10% of their range on Indigenous Peoples’ lands that had low human pressure. Our results show how important Indigenous Peoples’ lands are to the successful implementation of conservation and sustainable development agendas worldwide.