China's Minerals Future: 1985–2005

China has embarked on major economic and social changes to revitalize the Chinese economy, increase labor productivity, and improve the material standard of living of the Chinese people. This paper assumes that China will achieve its goal of a per capita income of US$800 in 2000, open-door policies will be maintained, and nonfuel mineral commodity consumption will increase as GDP per capita increases. Projections are made of production, trade and consumption of 14 nonfuel minerals for the period 1985–2005. China is projected to increase its net imports to these 14 minerals from about US$5000 million in 1985 to about US$12000 million in constant dollars in 2005. China's investment climate will become more favorable for those multinational companies that bring with them clear comparative advantages in minerals exploration, mining and processing technologies and marketing, and are prepared to develop in-depth Chinese expertise.     

The Cost of Developing Site-Specific Environmental Regulations: Evidence from EPA's Project XL

The flagship of the Environmental Protection Agency's regulatory reinvention initiative, Project XL has been touted as a regulatory blueprint for a site-specific, performance-based pollution-control system, but widespread complaints about the costs of the program beg the question of whether the costs of tailoring regulations to individual facilities are manageable. To address this question, this paper presents original survey data on a sample of 11 XL projects. We find that the fixed costs of putting in place XL agreements are substantial, averaging over $450,000 per firm. While stakeholder negotiations are widely cited as the principal source for these costs, we find that they actually arise mainly from interaction between participating facilities and the EPA. Moreover, EPA management problems are perceived by our survey respondents as having inflated project development costs. Finally, we find that the key factors that explains differences in costs across XL projects are the scope and complexity of the project proposal. These findings suggest that Project XL favors large firms that can afford to pay significant project development costs, that EPA management problems must be resolved to reduce costs, and that there may be a significant economic bias against complex and innovative proposals—precisely the type of proposals that Project XL was designed to foster in order to improve the efficiency of the regulatory system.     

Use of an Airborne Lidar System to Model Plant Species Composition and Diversity of Mediterranean Oak Forests

Abstract: Airborne lidar is a remote‐sensing tool of increasing importance in ecological and conservation research due to its ability to characterize three‐dimensional vegetation structure. If different aspects of plant species diversity and composition can be related to vegetation structure, landscape‐level assessments of plant communities may be possible. We examined this possibility for Mediterranean oak forests in southern Portugal, which are rich in biological diversity but also threatened. We compared data from a discrete, first‐and‐last return lidar data set collected for 31 plots of cork oak (Quercus suber) and Algerian oak (Quercus canariensis) forest with field data to test whether lidar can be used to predict the vertical structure of vegetation, diversity of plant species, and community type. Lidar‐ and field‐measured structural data were significantly correlated (up to r= 0.85). Diversity of forest species was significantly associated with lidar‐measured vegetation height (R²= 0.50, p < 0.001). Clustering and ordination of the species data pointed to the presence of 2 main forest classes that could be discriminated with an accuracy of 89% on the basis of lidar data. Lidar can be applied widely for mapping of habitat and assessments of habitat condition (e.g., in support of the European Species and Habitats Directive [92/43/EEC]). However, particular attention needs to be paid to issues of survey design: density of lidar points and geospatial accuracy of ground‐truthing and its timing relative to acquisition of lidar data.     

Establishing IUCN Red List Criteria for Threatened Ecosystems

Abstract: The potential for conservation of individual species has been greatly advanced by the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) development of objective, repeatable, and transparent criteria for assessing extinction risk that explicitly separate risk assessment from priority setting. At the IV World Conservation Congress in 2008, the process began to develop and implement comparable global standards for ecosystems. A working group established by the IUCN has begun formulating a system of quantitative categories and criteria, analogous to those used for species, for assigning levels of threat to ecosystems at local, regional, and global levels. A final system will require definitions of ecosystems; quantification of ecosystem status; identification of the stages of degradation and loss of ecosystems; proxy measures of risk (criteria); classification thresholds for these criteria; and standardized methods for performing assessments. The system will need to reflect the degree and rate of change in an ecosystem's extent, composition, structure, and function, and have its conceptual roots in ecological theory and empirical research. On the basis of these requirements and the hypothesis that ecosystem risk is a function of the risk of its component species, we propose a set of four criteria: recent declines in distribution or ecological function, historical total loss in distribution or ecological function, small distribution combined with decline, or very small distribution. Most work has focused on terrestrial ecosystems, but comparable thresholds and criteria for freshwater and marine ecosystems are also needed. These are the first steps in an international consultation process that will lead to a unified proposal to be presented at the next World Conservation Congress in 2012.     

The nature and structure of workers' trust in management

This paper presents a theoretical and empirical analysis of the nature of trust at work. Use is made of the facet approach to generate a definitional framework of trust, and this is proposed as a theoretical basis for the analysis of the structural characteristics of trust. Hypotheses regarding the relations between the definitional framework and empirical observations were tested by applying Smallest Space Analysis to analyse data collected from a sample of 398 colliery workmen, using questionnaires developed on the basis of the faceted definition. The results demonstrate strong support for the definitional framework suggested for the concept of trust and its construct validity. The results also suggest a possible distinction workers make between trust and mistrust and, between the specifics of activities to do with the job itself versus managers in general. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Role of Incentive Programs in Conserving the Snow Leopard

Abstract:   Pastoralists and their livestock share much of the habitat of the snow leopard ( Uncia uncia ) across south and central Asia. The levels of livestock predation by the snow leopard and other carnivores are high, and retaliatory killing by the herders is a direct threat to carnivore populations. Depletion of wild prey by poaching and competition from livestock also poses an indirect threat to the region's carnivores. Conservationists working in these underdeveloped areas that face serious economic damage from livestock losses have turned to incentive programs to motivate local communities to protect carnivores. We describe a pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land. We also describe how income generation from handicrafts in Mongolia is helping curtail poaching and retaliatory killing of snow leopards. However, initiatives to offset the costs of living with carnivores and to make conservation beneficial to affected people have thus far been small, isolated, and heavily subsidized. Making these initiatives more comprehensive, expanding their coverage, and internalizing their costs are future challenges for the conservation of large carnivores such as the snow leopard.     

Bushmeat Supply and Consumption in a Tropical Logging Concession in Northern Congo

Abstract: Unsustainable hunting of wildlife for food empties tropical forests of many species critical to forest maintenance and livelihoods of forest people. Extractive industries, including logging, can accelerate exploitation of wildlife by opening forests to hunters and creating markets for bushmeat. We monitored human demographics, bushmeat supply in markets, and household bushmeat consumption in five logging towns in the northern Republic of Congo. Over 6 years we recorded 29,570 animals in town markets and collected 48,920 household meal records. Development of industrial logging operations led to a 69% increase in the population of logging towns and a 64% increase in bushmeat supply. The immigration of workers, jobseekers, and their families altered hunting patterns and was associated with increased use of wire snares and increased diversity in the species hunted and consumed. Immigrants hunted 72% of all bushmeat, which suggests the short‐term benefits of hunting accrue disproportionately to “outsiders” to the detriment of indigenous peoples who have prior, legitimate claims to wildlife resources. Our results suggest that the greatest threat of logging to biodiversity may be the permanent urbanization of frontier forests. Although enforcement of hunting laws and promotion of alternative sources of protein may help curb the pressure on wildlife, the best strategy for biodiversity conservation may be to keep saw mills and the towns that develop around them out of forests.     

Pseudomonas fluorescens Dynamics in the Soil Surface to Subsurface Transect

Microbial displacement in the soil is an important process for bioremediation and dispersal of wastewater pathogens. We evaluated cell movement in surface and subsurface red-yellow podzolic soil driven by advection and microbial motility and also survival of a microbial population at high pressure as is prevalent in deep soil layers. Pseudomonas fluorescens Br 12, resistant to rifampycin and kanamycin, was used as a model organism traceable in non-sterile soil. Our results showed that more than 40% of the P. fluorescens population survived under high pressure, and that microbial motility was not a major factor for its displacement in the soil. Cells were adsorbed in similar amounts to surface and subsurface soils, but more viable cells were present in the leachate of surface than in subsurface soils. The nature of this unexpected cell binding to the subsurface soil was studied by EPR, Mossbauer, NMR, and infrared techniques, suggesting iron had a weak interaction with microbes in soil. P. fluorescens movement in soil resulted mainly from convection forces rather than microbial motility. The transport of this bacterium along the transept toward groundwater encountered restricted viability, although it survived under high pressure conditions simulating those in deep soil layers.     

THE MARKET FOR MANGANESE DERIVED FROM DEEPSEA NODULES

The potential markets for the manganese which may be derived from deep-sea nodules are assessed. Estimates are made of current consumption patterns of manganese in various forms – standard ferromanganese, low carbon ferromanganese and manganese metal – by the ferrous and nonferrous metallurgical industries. The effects of technological developments, expected to occur between 1980 and 1990, and potential price reductions on the demand for manganese are analysed separately and the combined effects of market growth, technological change, and price reductions are synthesized. Cet article évalue des marches potentiels pour le manganèse qui peut être extrait des nodules du fond des océans. Ces estimations sont basées sur les tendances actuelles de la consommation du manganèse dans ses diverses formes – ferromanganèse normal, ferromanganèse à basse teneur en carbone et manganèse métallique – par les industries des métaux ferreux et non ferreux. Les effects des progrès techniques qui sont attendus entre 1980 et 1990 et la diminution possible des prix du manganèse sont analysés séparément. L'article fait aussi la synthèse des effects combinés de la croissance du marché, des changements technologiques et de la diminution des prix. En este artículo se evalúa el mercado potencial para el manganeso derivado de los nódulos obtenidos del fondo marino. Se analiza las tendencies actuales del consumo de manganeso en sus diversas formas – ferromanganeso estandard, ferromanganeso de bajo contenido de carbón y metal manganeso – por las industries metalúrgicas. Los efectos sobre la demanda de manganeso por el desarrollo tecnológico durante 1980 a 1990 y de la reducción potencial del precio, son analizados separadamente. Se evalúa también el efector combinado del crecimiento del mercado, el cambio tecnológico y las reducciones de precio.