Cultural Influence on Crowding Norms in Outdoor Recreation: A Comparative Analysis of Visitors to National Parks in Turkey and the United States

Formulation of standards of quality in parks and outdoor recreation can be guided by normative theory and related empirical methods. We apply this approach to measure the acceptability of a range of use levels in national parks in Turkey and the United States. Using statistical methods for comparing norm curves across contexts, we find significant differences among Americans, British, and Turkish respondents. In particular, American and British respondents were substantially less tolerant of seeing other visitors and demonstrated higher norm intensity than Turkish respondents. We discuss the role of culture in explaining these findings, paying particular attention to Turkey as a traditional “contact culture” and the conventional emphasis on solitude and escape in American environmental history and policy. We conclude with a number of recommendations to stimulate more research on the relationship between culture and outdoor recreation.     

Dust exposures in tractor and combine operations in eastern Mediterranean, Turkey

The objective of this study was to determine the dust concentrations in selected tractor and combine operations in eastern Mediterranean region in Turkey Mean dust concentrations were 137.9 mg m(-3), 83.6 mg m(-3), 80.3 mg m(-3), and 88.8 mg m(-3) respectively for soil packing, furrowing, straw making, and baling on tractors with no cabins whereas 106.9 mg m(-3) was found in combines without cabins, which are much higher than the limit dust concentration (10 mg m(-3)) considered hazardous for workers' health. In tractor operations with field-installed cabins, mean dust concentrations were 5.6 mg m(-3), 6.6 mg m(-3), 6.4 mg m(-3), and 3.7 mg m(-3), respectively in soil packing, furrowing, straw making, and baling while 4.7 mg m(-3) was measured in combines with field-installed cabins. Considering unit-manufactured cabins, mean dust concentrations were 1.1 mg m(-3), 1.6 mg m(-3), 3.2 mg m(-3), and 1.4 mg m(-3) respectively in tractor operations, and 1.4 mg mr(-3) in combine operations. Variance analyses showed that not only the respiration environment of the workers but also the field operation had a significant effect on measured dust concentrations (p < 0.01). Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.74 (very strong level) between dust concentration and wind speed in soil packing, 0.46 (medium level) between dust concentration and wind speed in baling, and 0.44 (medium level) between dust concentration and ground speed in combining.     

Spatial and temporal variability of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) at the Turkish coast of the Aegean Sea

In this study, the activity concentrations of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb were determined in mussel samples (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected from the Turkish coast of the Aegean Sea. The samples were collected seasonally for a period of two years (2004-2006) at six coastal stations (Çanakkale, Dikili, Foça, Çe?me, Didim, Bodrum). Mussels were separated into several groups according to their size (1-4, 4-6, >6 cm). The results showed that ²¹⁰Po concentrations in mussels varied between 53 ± 4 and 1960 ± 60 Bq kg⁻¹ dw. The highest activity ²¹⁰Po concentrations were determined in winter samples of mussels with a shell length of 4-6 cm from Didim. In general, it was observed that the ²¹⁰Pb concentration levels in mussels were lower than ²¹⁰Po concentrations. The ²¹⁰Po/²¹⁰Pb activity concentration ratios exceeded unity for all mussel samples and averaged 26.0. The inter-site differences seen in ²¹⁰Po concentrations can be due to both the natural background levels of sites and industrial activities.     

Photocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic humic acid removal and selectivity of TiO(2) coated photoanode

In this study, photocatalytic (PC) and photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) treatment methods were comparatively investigated as a possible means of removing humic acid (HA) following absorbance at 254nm (UV(254)) and total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. The enhanced HA degradation rates were obtained in the PEC system over the conventional PC process under acidic, neutral and alkaline conditions. Preliminary and binary experiments were performed to determine the selectivity of the photoanode in terms of HA and chloride oxidation. TOC, chlorine and photocurrent parameters proved that HA was selectively removed before chlorine generation. The inhibitory effect of carbonate ions on the performance of photoanode was also studied under different pH values.     

Land cover classification with an expert system approach using Landsat ETM imagery: a case study of Trabzon

The main objective of this study is to generate a knowledge base which is composed of user-defined variables and included raster imagery, vector coverage, spatial models, external programs, and simple scalars and to develop an expert classification using Landsat 7 (ETM+) imagery for land cover classification in a part of Trabzon city. Expert systems allow for the integration of remote-sensed data with other sources of geo-referenced information such as land use data, spatial texture, and digital elevation model to obtain greater classification accuracy. Logical decision rules are used with the various datasets to assign class values for each pixel. Expert system is very suitable for the work of image interpretation as a powerful means of information integration. Landsat ETM data acquired in the year 2000 were initially classified into seven classes for land cover using a maximum likelihood decision rule. An expert system was constructed to perform post-classification sorting of the initial land cover classification using additional spatial datasets such as land use data. The overall accuracy of expert classification was 95.80%. Individual class accuracy ranged from 75% to 100% for each class.     

Seasonal variation of organochlorine contaminants in bonito (Sarda sarda L. 1758) and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus L. 1758) in Black Sea region, Turkey

The concentrations of indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine insecticides were determined in bonito (Sardasarda L. 1758) and anchovy (Engraulisencrasicolus L. 1758) from the Black Sea, Turkey. Concentrations of total indicator PCBs ranged between <1-17.0 in bonito, and <1-17.5 ng/g fresh weight in anchovy, and total of 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-chlorophenyl-ethane and its metabolites’ (DDTs) concentrations ranged between 13.4-26.3, and 2.96-19.0 ng/g fresh weight in bonito and anchovy respectively. PCB 52, p,p′-DDE and endosulfan (α + β) were found dominant in both of the fish species. Except endosulfan, and some DDT metabolites, none of the studied organochlorine pesticides was detected in the fish samples. Concentrations of PCBs in anchovy were found higher than those in bonito, whereas DDT and endosulfan concentrations were found similar in both of the fish species. All of the fish samples had residue concentrations below the maximum residue limits (MRL) recommended by FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission.     

Bromate formation on the non-porous TiO2 photoanode in the photoelectrocatalytic system

The increasing use of ozone in water disinfection processes has been the focus of considerable concern in regards to inorganic disinfection by product formation of bromate in waters containing bromide. Due to the public health risk caused by the presence of bromate as a suspected carcinogen, attention had been addressed to the conditions under which bromate is formed. In this study, photoanodic bromine generation and bromate (BrO(3)(-)) formation were investigated using a TiO(2) electrode in a photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) treatment process. The separation of anodic and cathodic reactions in the PEC system resulted in a pH decrease from 9.3 to 3.0 in the photoanode compartment and an increase to 11.0 in the cathode compartment. Under a photo-illumination intensity of 5.7 m W cm(-2) UV, a biasing potential of +1.0V vs SCE, a pH of 6.0 and at a NaBr concentration of 1.0 x 10(-2) M, active bromine formation increased over time with 2.4 x 10(-6) M min(-6) rate and reached a steady-state concentration of 1.44 x 10(-4) M in 60 min. Bromate formation was detected after a lag-period of 15 min and exhibited a continuous increasing trend with respect to irradiation time. No bromate formation was observed below pH 6.5 whereas an increasing bromate concentrations and pH up to pH=8.5 were noted.     

Stochastic modeling of accident risks associated with an underground coal mine in Turkey

In this study, a methodology is proposed towards development of an uncertainty model that includes randomness in the occurrence of days-lost accidents in a coal mine. The accident/injury data consists of 1390 days-lost accident cases recorded at GLI-Tuncbilek underground lignite mine from January 1994 to December 2002. In the first step of proposed methodology, the frequency and the severity of the accidents have been modeled statistically by fitting appropriate distributions. The test done by BestFit software yields a chi-square value of 21.53 (p = 0.089) with 14 degrees of freedom and estimates the parameter of lambda for Poisson distribution as 12.87 accidents/month. For the severity component, a lognormal distribution is fitted to days-lost data and chi-square goodness-of-fit test calculates a value of 40.44 (p = 0.097) with 30 degrees of freedom. The parameters of lognormal distribution are estimated as a mean of 14.3 days and standard deviation of 23.1 days, respectively. Then, two distributions are basically combined by Monte Carlo simulation in order to construct relative risk levels in yearly base referring to the final cumulative distribution. Finally, a simple forecasting modeling is carried out in order to quantitatively predict the expected risk levels by using decomposition technique in time series analysis. Stochastic model estimates that although, there would be substantial reduction in the expected number of accidents in the near future, the higher level of risks still should be a concern for the mine management.     

Problems of Outdoor Recreation: The Effect of Visitors’ Demographics on the Perceptions of Termessos National Park, Turkey

Visitor demographics, perceptions and their relationships are investigated to determine the problems and issues for outdoor recreation, which has been a neglected part of the Turkish national park system, using the case of Termessos National Park, located in the south of Turkey. The park is attractive for both its historical and natural resources. Five demographic characteristics (gender, age, nationality, education level and income level) were used to test perceptions of the park resources, preference for number of groups and perception of crowding. The data was collected via a questionnaire survey administered on-site. Chi-square tests demonstrated that perceptions are significantly influenced by the nationality of respondents. Archaeological ruins were perceived as the most popular park resource, and were more appreciated by the older age groups, French visitors and those with higher education. Although the park was not perceived to be crowded, at least 25% of all age groups and 30% of all nationalities preferred not to encounter any other groups, whereas a significant majority of Turkish visitors (over 95%) did not mind having one or two groups present during their visit. Visitors with higher education and income levels preferred to encounter fewer groups. At least 60% of the visitors were comfortable with the actual condition of the park. The trails, signage and brochures were considered major problems. As an integrated part of the ruins, redesign of trails was perceived as necessary. Signage was perceived to be the second most important problem, which is also related to trails and orientation, whereas brochures were suggested as supplementary materials.