Biofilm grazing in a higher vertebrate: the western sandpiper, Calidris mauri

We show that a higher vertebrate can graze surficial intertidal biofilm, previously only considered a food source for rasping invertebrates and a few specialized fish. Using evidence from video recordings, stomach contents, and stable isotopes, we describe for the first time the grazing behavior of Western Sandpipers (Calidris mauri) and estimate that biofilm accounts for 45-59% of their total diet or 50% of their daily energy budget. Our finding of shorebirds as herbivores extends the trophic range of shorebirds to primary consumers and potential competitors with grazing invertebrates. Also, given individual grazing rates estimated at seven times body mass per day and flock sizes into the tens of thousands, biofilm-feeding shorebirds could have major impacts on sediment dynamics. We stress the importance of the physical and biological processes maintaining biofilm to shorebird and intertidal conservation.     

The role of mucus in particle processing by suspension-feeding marine bivalves: unifying principles

Contemporary research on bivalve suspension-feeding has revealed a diversity of particle processing mechanisms depending on the anatomy and functioning of the pallial organs involved. On the biochemical level, however, some evidence of homogeneity has emerged concerning the types of mucopolysaccharide associated with particle processing. The present study uses both previous data and original research combining video endoscopy and mucocyte mapping to further explore the relationships between pallial organ topography, functional correlates, direction of current flow, and mucocyte secretion type. Five species representing five different families and all four major gill types are represented: Mytilus edulis, Placopecten magellanicus, Crassostrea virginica, Mya arenaria, and Spisula solidissima. Viscous acid or acid-dominant mucopolysaccharides are used when particle transport occurs on an exposed surface, or on a structure leading directly to such a surface, counter to the prevailing current flow. Associated functions are indiscriminate transport in gill ventral particle grooves and rejection of pseudofeces. Lower-viscosity mixed mucopolysaccharides are used when particle transport is on an enclosed or semi-enclosed surface, leading to other such surfaces, and with the current flow. Associated functions are transport of particles destined for ingestion, and ingestion itself. Low-viscosity neutral mucopolysaccharides are found in regions where reduction of mucus viscosity is important, such as the areas of the labial palps responsible for fluidization of the high-viscosity mucus-particle cord of the gill ventral particle groove prior to particle extraction. There thus appears to be a specialization of mucus type corresponding to functional specialization of the various pallial organs in suspension-feeding marine bivalves. Received: 10 October 1996 / Accepted: 7 May 1997     

New observations of the gills of Placopecten magellanicus (Mollusca: Bivalvia), and implications for nutrition

The organization, general anatomy, and surface microanatomy of all regions of the gills of a representive bivalve mollusc, Placopecten magellanicus Gmelin, were studied using stereo-microscopic, histological, and scanning electron microscopic techniques. Individuals were collected in May and November 1985 from Chamcook Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. In addition to correcting earlier accounts of this structure, a number of new observations are reported. The orientation of the ciliated spurs appears to be responsible for the sinusoidal arrangement of the gill filaments. Micrographs showing the structure of the dorsal respiratory expansion are presented. The entire abfrontal surface of the principal filament, including the dorsal respiratory expansion, is densely ciliated and mucosecretory. These characteristics may aid in the establishment of a respiratory current and in the prevention of gill damage during escape responses. All nonciliated regions of the gill filaments are covered with microvilli, thus greatly increasing the surface area of the gill. The feeding mechanism is discussed in relation to the dorsal and ventral ciliated tracts. Symbiotic ciliate protozoans are constantly dislodged from the gill filaments and transported via the ventral mucus string to the buccal region. The nutritional implications of these observations are discussed.     

Direct observations of feeding structures and mechanisms in bivalve molluscs using endoscopic examination and video image analysis

A new technique is described for observing the structures and mechanisms of suspension feeding in bivalves using endoscopic examination and video image analysis. This method permits direct in vivo observations of whole, intact structures of relatively undisturbed specimens. No surgical alterations of shell or tissue are required for most species. Pallial organ activity can be recorded for future observations and analysis. Using this technique we examined three bivalve species, each with different degrees of mantle fusion:Mya arenaria L.Mytilus edulis L., andPlacopecten magellanicus (Gmelin). The specimens were collected between April and September 1990 at various locations in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, Canada. Particle retention by the gill and transport of material to the palps was observed, and velocity of particles moving on the gill was determined. We demonstrate that the endoscope-video-analysis system is an efficient and affordable technique suitable for studies of pallial organ function and mechanisms of feeding.     

Peribuccal organs ofPlacopecten magellanicus andChlamys varia (Mollusca: Bivalvia): Structure,ultrastructure and implications for feeding

In order to better understand the structure of bivalve peribuccal organs and relate this to existing functional paradigms of their role in feeding, the labial palps of two scallop species,Placopecten magellanicus from the Bay of Fundy, Canada (1985 and 1986), andChlamys varia from the Bay of Brest, France (1986), were examined using histological techniques and electron microscopy. The ridged palp surface displays a uniformly dense ciliation with relatively few mucocytes; these are essentially concentrated in the region of the secondary ledge and may, through their secretory activity, determine the fate of particle masses in this area. The mucus secretions of the ridged palp surface are qualitatively different from those of the smooth palp surface. Mucocytes are much more abundant on the smooth palp surface, where it is suggested that their homogeneous secretions attenuate the potentially adverse effects of anteriorly-directed cleansing and swimming currents. Two other cell types are found in the palp epithelia: ciliated cells, which are very numerous on the ridged surface and relatively rare on the smooth surface, and non-ciliated epithelial cells, which are very numerous on the smooth surface and rare on the ridged surface, where they are confined to the palp margin. In addition to the mechanical role of the ciliated cells and mucocytes, the ultrastructural characteristics of the ciliated and non-ciliated epithelial cells indicate a dichotomy of function between the ridged and smooth surfaces. The ridged surface epithelial cells present an ultrastructural specialization in the absorption of dissolved and colloidal matter, suggesting an accessory nutritive role, whereas the smooth surface simple epithelial cells show signs of active molecular synthesis. No specialised sensory cells were observed on the ridged surface; it is therefore not yet possible to conclude whether the labial palps are capable of selection based on individual particle characteristics.     

New observations of the gills of Placopecten magellanicus (Mollusca: Bivalvia), and implications for nutrition

The internal anatomy and microanatomy of the gill of Placopecten magellanicus Gmelin collected in May and November 1985 from Chamcook Bay, New Brunswick, Canada, was studied using thin-section light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Most of the spurs show no evidence of organic union, and hence do not participate in vascular exchange. However, the dorsal bend shows both ciliary and organic interfilamentar union. The internal structure and the hemocytes of the dorsal respiratory expansion are presented. The epithelium consists of three distinct cell types, bounded by apical microvilli. All regions of the gill contain an epithelial basal membrane, which is greatly convoluted in the interconnecting vessels of the dorsal respiratory expansion. The significance of these observations is discussed in relation to possible roles in respiration, transmembrane transport and nutrition. The apical surface of all ciliated cells is covered with an acellular matrix composed of clear spherical vesicles, which may serve a mechanical function for which mucus would be unsuited. The significance of the abundance of mucocytes on the abfrontal surface of the principal filaments is discussed in terms of the escape response of pectinid bivalves.     

Ontogenetic changes in gill morphology and potential significance for food acquisition in the scallop <Emphasis Type="Italic">Placopecten</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">magellanicus</Emphasis>

Sources of mortality in both wild and cultured populations of marine bivalves during postlarval stages remain largely unknown, but may be partly associated with the inability to meet energetic demands during intense morphogenesis. The development of the gills in postsettlement scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) from 0.35 to 14 mm in shell height (SH) was investigated using scanning electron microscopy to determine the degree of size-specific differentiation of the gills and evaluate potential ontogenetic constraints in food acquisition. Key transitional stages in morphogenesis, likely to exert pronounced effects on feeding function, were identified and correlated with scallop size. The gill was initially homorhabdic, with unreflected inner demibranchs forming a basket-like structure maintained by ciliary junctions. Gill reflection, immediately followed by accelerated proliferation of gill filaments and formation of outer demibranchs, occurred at ~1 mm SH. Outer demibranchs were fully formed at ~2 mm SH. Suspension-feeding is probably rather inefficient prior to attaining 1-2 mm sizes. The onset of the heterorhabdic, adult form of the gill, which allows bidirectional particle transport and the potential for selection and for volume regulation of ingested material on the gill, occurred fairly late in development, at ~3.3-5.0 mm SH. Full development of gill plication was delayed until scallops attained ~7 mm. Gill differentiation in this species is thus relatively protracted and punctuated by critical transitional stages, which may be important in determining feeding and growth capacity of postlarval wild and cultured populations.     

Gonopod tegumental glands: a new accessory sex gland in the Brachyura

It is not yet known whether gonopod tegumental glands (GTG) previously described in one species of brachyuran crab (Chionoecetes opilio) are a general feature in this large taxon. In order to determine the prevalence and role of GTG in the Brachyura, the first gonopods of six species of boreo-temperate and tropical brachyurans belonging to four families were examined morphologically and histologically, using the PAS–Alcian-blue staining protocol: Carcinus maenas, Portunus sebae, and Ovalipes ocellatus (Portunidae), Cancer irroratus (Cancridae), Grapsus grapsus (Grapsidae), and Petrolisthes armatus (Porcellanidae). Discrete rosette-type GTG were found in all species examined, although the longitudinal extent and location differed somewhat between taxa. The GTG were invariably grouped about the ejaculatory canal, and communicated with the lumen of the ejaculatory canal via ducts which traversed pores in the cuticle; staining properties of secretions at the duct openings to the ejaculatory canal matched those of the GTG. Neither GTG, ducts, nor pores were observed in regions distal to the ejaculatory canal. These data indicate that the prime, if not exclusive, role of the GTG is in reproduction, and that GTG may therefore be considered accessory sex glands. Together with previous and current investigations such GTG have been observed in all eight brachyuran species examined from five families, and are thus probably ubiquitous within the Brachyura. The organization and nature of the gland secretions differed between taxa: alternating acid (AMPS) and neutral mucopolysaccharide (NMPS) layers in the three Portunidae, AMPS only in Cancer irroratus, and NMPS only in Grapsus grapsus and Petrolisthes armatus. When combined with data on gonopod morphology and occurrence of spermatophore-less sealant in the ejaculate of various brachyurans, two plausible functions of the AMPS GTG secretions emerge: protection of the male's genetic investment (stored spermatophores) from opportunistic microbes following copulation, and the reciprocal processes of sperm competition and paternity assurance. The NMPS secretions may function as a lubricant to reduce mechanical wear of the ejaculatory canal by the second gonopod during copulation, and to reduce the viscosity of the ejaculate from the vas deferens as it enters the narrow ejaculatory canal. Received: 26 January 1998 / Accepted: 11 June 1998