The feasibility of including sustainability in LCA for product development

The feasibility of combining the concept of sustainability principles and the methodology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is examined. The goal is to achieve an operational tool that incorporates sustainability in product development and strategic planning. While the method outlined has the structure of LCA, it emphasises aspects and parameters often omitted from traditional LCA. The analysis and results can be either qualitative or semi-quantitative. Although a qualitative analysis is less time consuming, it can still highlight the important issues. Qualitative information, which is easily lost in a quantitative analysis, can be emphasised. One of the conclusions is that the method is well suited for screening analysis.     

Uptake of some selected aquatic pollutants in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and the polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS)

The uptake characteristics of semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCISs) were examined for mono, di and tributyltin, triphenyltin, pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene, 4-tert-butylphenol, 4-n-nonylphenol, PCBs 77 and 153, PBDE 47, lindane, triclosan and DDT. Exposure in a flow through system continued for 28 days with samplers removed every 7 days in order to study the relevant uptake kinetics. Uptake remained linear for POCISs with sampling rates (Rs) of up to 0.2 L d(-1). For SPMDs uptake varied from linear to approaching equilibrium with Rs values of up to 14 L d(-1). 7 out of 9 results for SPMDs could be explained by an empirical model (nonylphenol and lindane were exceptions). None of the four organo-tin compounds studied were detected in POCISs and only tributyltin was accumulated significantly by SPMDs. The establishment of these sampling rates allows the calculation of time weighted water concentrations for several important contaminants. Using presented methods, sampling rates and exposure conditions, theoretical detection limits for selected compounds by SPMDs were between 11-68 pg L(-1), which is well below the environment quality standard proposed for those compounds that are included in the European Water Framework Directive.     

Determinants of brominated flame retardants in breast milk from a large scale Norwegian study

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), particularly polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), are widely present in human populations. In order to investigate human exposure pathways and associations with socioeconomic and lifestyle factors, 393 breast milk samples from mothers living in various regions throughout Norway were analyzed. Up to ten PBDE congeners were measured in all the samples, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and BDE-209 in subsets of 310 and 46, respectively. The median concentrations of the sum of the seven most prominent PBDEs (BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183), BDE-209 and HBCD were 2.1, 0.32 and 0.86 ng/g lipids, respectively. These concentrations are comparable to the levels generally observed in human populations in Europe. The frequency distributions were quite skewed with long tails towards higher concentrations. Maternal age, parity, education, having a cohabitant employed as electrician, and ventilation were factors significantly associated with some of the BFRs, although these factors only explained a small amount of the variability (R² 0.04–0.16). The mothers' diet was not found to influence the breast milk PBDE and HBCD levels. Our results show that sources other than the diet are important for the variability seen in breast milk BFR concentrations and that exposure from the indoor atmosphere should be emphasized in future studies.     

Screening for Stockholm Convention persistent organic pollutants in the Bosna River (Bosnia and Herzogovina)

The Stockholm Convention, which aspires to manage persistent organic pollutants (POPs) at the international level, was recently ratified in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Despite this fact, there is in general a paucity of data regarding the levels of POPs in the environment in BiH. In the present study, screening for POPs was conducted in one of the country’s major rivers, the Bosna. A two-pronged approach was applied using passive samplers to detect the freely dissolved and bioavailable concentrations in the water phase and sediment analysis to provide an integrated measure of historical contamination. At several places along the river, the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were high and exhibited potential for both chronic and acute effects to biota. River water also showed elevated concentrations of PAH, up to 480 ng L^?1 near the city of Doboj, and diagnostic ratios suggested combustion sources for the contamination present in both types of sample. The levels of the other contaminants measured—polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers—were generally low in the water phase. However, PCBs and some OCPs were present in river sediments at levels which breach the international criteria and thus suggest potential for ecological damage. Additionally, the levels of heptachlor breached these criteria in many of the sites investigated. This study presents the first screening data for some of these Stockholm Convention relevant compounds in BiH and reveals both low concentrations of some chemical groups, but significant point sources and historic contamination for others.     

Occupational exposure to fluorinated hydrocarbons during refrigeration repair work

This study describes refrigeration repair workers' occupational exposures to halogenated refrigerants, focusing on difluorochloromethane (HCFC 22), tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a) and a mixture of tri-, tetra- and pentafluoroethane (R404A) in 30 work operations. Unlike earlier reported studies, the present study includes working procedures involving welding in order to measure possible occupational exposure to decomposition products. The measurements included hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), phosgene (COCl2) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). The exposures were assessed during work operations on small-scale cooling installations like refrigerators and freezers. The repair workers' occupational exposures to refrigerants were moderate, and the major part of the exposures were associated with specific working procedures lasting for relatively short periods of time (<20 min). During these exposure events the concentrations were occasionally high (up to 42434 mg m(-3)). Although welding operations lasted only for short periods of time, HF was detected in 9 out of 15 samples when HCFC 22, HFC 134a or R404A had been used. Hydrogen chloride was detected in 3 out of 5 samples in air polluted with HCFC 22. Phosgene was not detected. A large number of VOCs in various concentrations were found during welding. Except for the applied refrigerants, halogenated compounds were only found in one sample.     

Effects-directed analysis of organic toxicants in wastewater effluent from Zagreb, Croatia

The organic toxicants present in the effluent of the main sewer of the city of Zagreb, Croatia were isolated and identified through the use of effects-directed characterisation techniques. At the time of investigation, the wastewater effluent received no treatment and was comprised of a mixture of effluent from domestic and industrial sources. The organic load of the wastewater was isolated by solid phase extraction and toxicity profiles obtained using reverse-phase HPLC. All procedures were evaluated through the analysis of a series of reference compounds of widely differing polarity. Toxicity profiles for EROD activity (CYP1A induction), vitellogenin induction (estrogenic activity), cytotoxicity (membrane stability and metabolic inhibition) were obtained using a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) primary hepatocyte bioassay. The suite of bioassays showed biological responses after exposure to the raw extracts for all the endpoints tested. However, a combination of mixture toxicity and cytotoxicity in the complex raw extract had some masking effect on the sub-lethal responses of vitellogenin and EROD induction. Bioassay testing of the fine fractions obtained by HPLC produced a range of endpoint-specific toxicity profiles for each sample. A number of compounds were identified by the use of GC-MS and LC-MS/MS as responsible for the observed effects. The steroid estrogens 17 beta-estradiol and estriol were identified by LC-MS/MS as estrogen receptor agonists in two of the estrogenic fractions. In addition, GC-MS analysis identified different alkylphenols, benzophenone and methylparaben which also contributed to the estrogenic activity of the sample. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkyl substituted PAHs, nitro-polycyclic aromatic compounds (nitro-PACs), carbazoles and alkyl substituted carbazoles and other known CYP1A inducers were identified by GC-MS analysis as responsible for some of the observed EROD activity. Some active compounds remain unidentified.     

Air formaldehyde and solvent concentrations during surface coating with acid-curing lacquers and paints in the woodworking and furniture industry

An investigation of contemporary exposure to formaldehyde and organic solvents has been carried out during surface coating with acid-curing lacquers and paints in the Norwegian woodworking and furniture industry over a period of 3 years. The investigation covered 27 factories of different sizes and with different types of production, and totally 557 parallel formaldehyde and solvent samples were collected. The formaldehyde concentration (geometric mean) was 0.15 ppm (range 0.01-1.48 ppm) with about 10% of the samples exceeding the Norwegian occupational exposure limit of 0.5 ppm. The solvent concentration as additive effect (geometric mean) was 0.13 (range 0.0004-5.08) and about 5% of the samples exceeded the Norwegian occupational exposure limit. The most frequently occurring solvents from acid-curing lacquers were n-butyl acetate, ethanol, ethyl acetate and 1-butanol, which were found in 88-98% of the samples. Toluene, n-butyl acetate and 1-butanol were the only solvents with maximum concentrations exceeding their respective occupational exposure limits. Curtain painting machine operators were exposed to the highest concentrations of both formaldehyde (geometric mean 0.51 ppm, range 0.08-1.48 ppm) and organic solvents (additive effect, geometric mean 1.18, range 0.02-5.08). Other painting application work tasks such as automatic and manual spray-painting, manual painting and dip painting, showed on average considerably lower concentrations of both formaldehyde (geometric means 0.07-0.16 ppm) and organic solvents (additive effect, geometric mean 0.02-0.18). Non-painting work tasks also displayed moderate concentrations of formaldehyde (geometric means 0.11-0.17 ppm) and organic solvents (additive effect, geometric mean 0.04-0.07).     

Norwegian Testing of Emulsion Properties at Sea--The Importance of Oil Type and Release Conditions

This paper is a review of the major findings from laboratory studies and field trials conducted in Norway in recent years on the emulsification of oils spilled at sea. Controlled bench-scale and meso-scale basin experiments using a wide spectrum of oils have revealed that both the physico-chemical properties of the oils and the release conditions are fundamental determinants of the rate of emulsion formation, for the rheological properties of the emulsion formed and for the rate of natural dispersion at sea.During the last decade, several series of full-scale field trials with experimental releases of various crude oils have been undertaken in the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea. These have involved both sea surface releases, underwater pipeline leak simulations (release of oil under low pressure and no gas) and underwater blowout simulations (pressurized oil with gas) from 100 and 850 m depth. The field trials have been performed in co-operation with NOFO (Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies), individual oil companies, the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT) and Minerals Management Services (MMS). SINTEF has been responsible for the scientific design and monitoring during these field experiments. The main objectives of the trials have been to study the behaviour of different crude oils spilled under various conditions and to identify the operational and logistical factors associated with different countermeasure techniques.The paper gives examples of data obtained on the emulsification of spilled oil during these field experiments. The empirical data generated from the experimental field trials have been invaluable for the validation and development of numerical models at SINTEF for predicting the spreading, weathering and behaviour of oil released under various conditions. These models are extensively used in contingency planning and contingency analysis of spill scenarios and as operational tools during spill situations and combat operations.     

Glial fibrillary acidic protein in amniotic fluids from pregnancies with fetal neural tube defects

The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is the subunit protein of intermediate filaments in astrocytes and closely related cell types. By means of an enzyme immunoassay we have determined the concentration of GFAP in amniotic fluids from normal pregnancies and from pregnancies complicated by various fetal malformations. The group of 20 cases of fetal anencephaly had a significantly higher mean amniotic fluid GFAP concentration (115 μg/1±133.6 (S.D.), range 6–378 μg/1) than the control group of 117 normal pregnancies (13 μg/1k±5.5 (S.D.), range 0–31 μg/1), (P<0.001). Two cases of fetal encephalocele likewise had very high amniotic fluid GFAP concentrations. None of the other cases of fetal malformations investigated, including 12 cases of spina bifida, had increased amniotic fluid GFAP concentrations. We conclude that determination of the amniotic fluid GFAP concentration may give additional information in the prenatal diagnosis of fetal nervous system malformations.