The commons dilemma

Whenever a short-term or local need in the exploitation of a scarce natural resource must be pitted against its long-term use or the needs of the larger community, the commons dilemma arises. The study of commons dilemmas originated in agricultural economies but has importance in all resource management areas. Psychologists have recently found it to be a useful paradigm in the study of decision-making behavior.This paper reviews the commons dilemma as it has been used in three areas of psychological research: games theory, animal and human territorial behavior, and behavior reinforcement. In the first area, results show how communication within groups operates in cooperation/competition situations. In the second, the effects of social and political ideologies are examined. In the third, the implications of the commons dilemma with regard to breaking out of social traps are discussed. Throughout, the relevance of this basic psychological research to rational resource management is made clear. An extensive bibliography of relevant original research is provided.     

Mechanisms of purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea) encroachment in dry heathland ecosystems with chronic nitrogen inputs

We analysed growth strategies (biomass allocation, nutrient sequestration and allocation) of heather (Calluna vulgaris) and purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea) seedlings in monocultures and mixtures in relation to N, P, and N + P fertilisation in a greenhouse experiment in order to simulate a heath’s pioneer phase under high airborne nitrogen (N) loads. N fertilisation increased the total biomass of both species in monocultures. In mixtures, M. caerulea sequestered about 65% of the N applied, while C. vulgaris suffered from N shortage (halving of the total biomass). Thus, in mixtures only M. caerulea will benefit from airborne N loads, and competition will become increasingly asymmetric with increasing N availability. Our results demonstrate that the heath’s pioneer phase is the crucial tipping point at which the competitive vigour of M. caerulea (high belowground allocation, efficient use of belowground resources, shortened reproductive cycles) induces a shift to dominance of grasses under increased N availability.     

Within season and carry-over effects following exposure of grassland species mixtures to increasing background ozone

Few studies have investigated effects of increased background ozone in the absence of episodic peaks, despite a predicted increase throughout the northern hemisphere over the coming decades. In this study Leontodon hispidus was grown with Anthoxanthum odoratum or Dactylis glomerata and exposed in the UK to one of eight background ozone concentrations for 20 weeks in solardomes. Seasonal mean ozone concentrations ranged from 21.4 to 102.5 ppb. Ozone-induced senescence of L. hispidus was enhanced when grown with the more open canopy of A. odoratum compared to the denser growing D. glomerata. There was increased cover with increasing ozone exposure for both A. odoratum and D. glomerata, which resulted in an increase in the grass:Leontodon cover ratio in both community types. Carry-over effects of the ozone exposure were observed, including delayed winter die-back of L. hispidus and acceleration in the progression from flowers to seed-heads in the year following ozone exposure.     

Implications of a simple competition model for the stability of an intercropping system

It is a common view that intercropping systems of agricultural crops produce more stable yields than do systems in which the same crops are grown in monoculture. This paper discusses a modelling approach which has been used to support the notion that whether or not intercropping is more stable than monoculture depends on the mode of interaction among crops, i.e. whether two different crops suppress or enhance each other. It is shown here that this notion is not supported by the model used. We conclude that the relative merits of the two cropping systems depend on the proportion of land allocated to each crop rather than on the mode of interaction. The model suggests that if the optimum allocation of land is considered, both systems will be equally stable.     

Small-scale spatial and temporal interactions among benthic crustaceans and one fish species in the Bay of Biscay

In the summer of 2004, a video survey was carried out in the northern part of the central mud bank (Grande Vasière) of the Bay of Biscay to study the small scale relationship between the dominant crustacean megafauna Nephrops norvegicus, Munida rugosa and Goneplax rhomboides and juvenile hake (Merluccius merluccius). Using a towed body, high-resolution videos were recorded in six sampling sites. Statistical modelling using generalised additive models (GAM) revealed variations in activity patterns for two species. More N. norvegicus were observed outside their burrows at dawn and somewhat at dusk (no observations during night) while G. rhomboides was less observed in the morning. In addition, reduced spatial overlap between G. rhomboides and N. norvegicus suggested reduced competition for food but also space as both are burrowing species. The observed temporal and spatial activity patterns may contribute to regulating assemblage structure as competing species may be actively foraging at different times and locations thus reducing direct competition.     

The role of sponge competition on coral reef alternative steady states

Sponges constitute an abundant and functionally important component of coral reef systems. Given their demonstrated resistance to environmental stress, it might be expected that the role of sponges in reef systems under modern regimes of frequent and severe disturbance may become even more substantial. Disturbances have recently reshaped the community structure of many Caribbean coral reefs shifting them towards a state of persistent low coral cover and often a dominance of macroalgae. Using competition and growth rates recorded from Glover's Atoll in Belize, we parameterise a mathematical model used to simulate the three-way competition between sponges, macroalgae and coral. We use the model to determine the range of parameters in which each of the three species might be expected to dominate. Emergent properties arise from our simple model of this complex system, and these include a special case in which heightened competitive ability of macroalgae versus coral may counter-intuitively prove to be advantageous to the persistence of corals. Importantly, we show that even under scenarios whereby sponges fail to invade the system, inclusion of this third antagonist can qualitatively affect the likelihood of alternative stable states - generally in favour of macroalgal dominance. The interplay between multi-species competition and predation is complex, but our efforts highlight a key process that has, until now, remained unexplored: the extent to which sponges dissipate algal grazing pressure by providing generalist fish with an alternative food source. We highlight the necessity of identifying the extent by which this process takes place in tropical systems in order to improve projections of alternative stable states for Caribbean coral reefs.     

全球低碳减排的合作竞争及其博弈格局分析

在全球围绕"低碳"减排博弈的背景下,从合作竞争的角度,分析国际低碳减排过程中的多个缔约国家之间的合作竞争行为及其动态平衡过程。重点用博弈论的相关原理对国际低碳减排市场背后的多个利益群体做一个全局性的分析,对全球低碳减排过程中的一些利益争夺现象进行解释,试图揭露出全球低碳减排博弈背后各个利益群体的谋划与动机;最后提醒中国在下一轮的低碳减排博弈过程中要有所准备。     

基于生态学的企业竞争要素及策略研究

企业生态位是联系企业自身生存发展与企业生存环境的纽带,是体现企业竞争力的标志。把生物学中的生态位理论应用到企业竞争分析中,使企业竞争有了新的战略思维。企业要立足自身实力和优势,分析环境的特点以及企业与环境的协调关系,利用企业的能动性,构建适合自身的生态位。本文将运用生态位理论对影响企业竞争的生态要素及策略选择等问题进行研究,试图为企业竞争战略的理论研究和实际应用提供一个可借鉴的方法。     

不同扰动条件下微囊藻和栅藻竞争能力的比较

以扰动为主要限制因子,研究铜绿微囊藻和栅藻在纯培养和共培养情况下的生长状况,探讨了竞争和种群增长率之间的关系,以判断藻类竞争的结果。结果表明:适宜的扰动有利于微囊藻的增长和聚集,较大强度的扰动则抑制微囊藻的生长。在共培养体系中,铜绿微囊藻有更强的竞争能力和抑制其它生物生长的能力,获得最大生物量和远大于栅藻的增长率。     

Is big the best? Queen size,usurpation and nest closure in a primitively eusocial sweat bee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lasioglossum malachurum</Emphasis>)

For primitively eusocial insects in which a single foundress establishes a nest at the start of the colony cycle, the solitary provisioning phase before first worker emergence represents a risky period when other, nestless foundresses may attempt to usurp the nest. In the primitively eusocial sweat bee Lasioglossum malachurum (Hymenoptera, Halictidae), spring foundresses compete for nests which are dug into hard soil. Nest-searching foundresses (‘floaters’) frequently inspected nests during this solitary phase and thereby exerted a usurpation pressure on resident queens. Usurpation has been hypothesised to increase across the solitary provisioning phase and favour closure of nests at an aggregation, marking the termination of the solitary provisioning phase by foundresses, before worker emergence. However, our experimental and observational data suggest that usurpation pressure may remain constant or even decrease across the solitary provisioning phase and therefore cannot explain nest closure before first worker emergence. Levels of aggression during encounters between residents and floaters were surprisingly low (9% of encounters across 2 years), and the outcome of confrontations was in favour of residents (resident maintains residency in 94% of encounters across 2 years). Residents were significantly larger than floaters. However, the relationship between queen size and offspring production, though positive, was not statistically significant. Size therefore seems to confer a considerable advantage to a queen during the solitary provisioning phase in terms of nest residency, but its importance in terms of worker production appears marginal. Factors other than intraspecific usurpation need to be invoked to explain the break in provisioning activity of a foundress before first worker emergence.