Ecological and economical assessment of end‐of‐life waste recycling in the electrical and electronic recovery sector

Technological innovation and shorter product life cycles of electrical and electronic equipment coupled with their rapidly growing applications have resulted in the generation of an enormous amount of waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). To address the potential environmental problems that could stem from improper end‐of‐life management of WEEE, many countries have drafted national legislation to improve the reuse, remanufacture and material recycling from WEEE, and to reduce the amount of such waste going to landfills. With the introduction of such legislation comes an increased need for the recovery operators to evaluate the recycling costs and environmental benefits of reclaimed products and materials in order to select the most appropriate end‐of‐life options for individual products in WEEE. This paper presents a systematic methodology for ecological and economical assessment to provide a holistic understanding of the impacts associated with different end‐of‐life options for such waste. This assessment, in addition to providing decision‐support for the selection of the best possible end‐of‐life option for a particular product in WEEE, could also generate vital information to support the design and material selection processes during the initial product development activities. The assertion made is that the detailed considerations of the ecological and economical impacts associated with different end‐of‐life options will significantly improve the recovery and recycling of WEEE.     

可持续转型与延伸生产者责任制度

本文采用多层次转型理论的分析框架,回顾了国内外延伸生产者责任(EPR)制度的理论和实践进展,对比了EPR制度倡导者最初提出的创新导向的制度设计,与当前各国实践中基于成本—效益平衡所开展的政策评估研究,指出两者在是否应该将激进的可持续转型作为EPR基本政策目标上观点不同,其原因在于政策的技术创新激励效果难以通过可测量的政策评估方法进行有效考察,由此造成两者在EPR政策调整方向上的分歧:前者坚持EPR制度设计应该进一步完善个体责任原则,以激励生产者创新和采纳绿色技术,推进生产消费模式的系统转型;而后者则强调在现有管制框架下简化制度设计,重点完善循环处理基础设施及其管理效率。这种分歧不仅影响到发达国家EPR制度的演化,也深刻影响了发展中国家EPR制度的移植和建构。结论以中国电子废物管理实践为例,提出构建包含三个层次的演化经济学分析框架,考察EPR制度建构过程中,微观层次的企业技术选择,中观层次的供应链治理结构变动,和宏观层次的再生资源产业转型,以系统考察制度发展对技术创新的激励效果。     

Cooperative Game Among Cities in Urban Agglomerations and Economical Sustainable Development

Abstract

This paper analyses redounded profits of cooperation and non-cooperation among cities in urban agglomerations based on game theory. It discusses the problems of economical development among cities with feeble cooperation, and deduces the conclusion that only cooperation of cities produces the maximum profits and realizes Pareto efficiency for cities and urban agglomerations. The paper states that cooperation is the cornerstone of economic sustainable development in urban agglomerations in profits produced by cooperation among cities. Some suggestions to accelerate cooperation among cities are proposed.     

在电子废弃物管理中生产者责任延伸制度探讨

随着2003年我国家电、通讯和电脑等电子产品的报废高峰期和宽带电讯业发展的黄金时代的到来，电子废弃物的污染问题日益引起人们的关注。我国传统废弃物的处理和管理制度的不完善。已使我国沿海地区的电子垃圾泛滥成灾，甚至威胁到内陆地区。而且电子废弃物中大量的有用资源没有得到有效回收。也不符合政府最近提倡的全民节约原则。因此，国家制定了有关电子废弃物的生产者责任延伸（EPR）制的具体法律法规。本文从环境经济学角度。结合其它国家和地区的生产者责任延伸制的颁布和运行情况。对我国电子废弃物的管理中施行生产责任延伸制进行初步探讨。     

Socio-environmental consideration of phosphorus flows in the urban sanitation chain of contrasting cities

Understanding how cities can transform organic waste into a valuable resource is critical to urban sustainability. The capture and recycling of phosphorus (P), and other essential nutrients, from human excreta is particularly important as an alternative organic fertilizer source for agriculture. However, the complex set of socio-environmental factors influencing urban human excreta management is not yet sufficiently integrated into sustainable P research. Here, we synthesize information about the pathways P can take through urban sanitation systems along with barriers and facilitators to P recycling across cities. We examine five case study cities by using a sanitation chains approach: Accra, Ghana; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Beijing, China; Baltimore, USA; and London, England. Our cross-city comparison shows that London and Baltimore recycle a larger percentage of P from human excreta back to agricultural lands than other cities, and that there is a large diversity in socio-environmental factors that affect the patterns of recycling observed across cities. Our research highlights conditions that may be “necessary but not sufficient” for P recycling, including access to capital resources. Path dependencies of large sanitation infrastructure investments in the Global North contrast with rapidly urbanizing cities in the Global South, which present opportunities for alternative sanitation development pathways. Understanding such city-specific social and environmental barriers to P recycling options could help address multiple interacting societal objectives related to sanitation and provide options for satisfying global agricultural nutrient demand.

     

The Essence of a Recycling Economy: Circular Utilization of Resources

Abstract

By analyzing the relationship between a recycling economy and sustainable development theory, this article puts forward the basic concept of a recycling economy as a dynamic economic operational model, and explains the four basic characteristics. It is stressed that the essential element of a recycling economy is the use of resources circularly. In the end, this article analyzes the phenomena of utilizing the recycling economy concept incorrectly, and sets forth a number of problems that should be noted during the process of developing a recycling economy in China.     

Evaluating efforts to build sustainable WEEE reverse logistics network design: comparison of regulatory and non-regulatory approaches

Many developing countries such as Turkey are still making an effort on building an infrastructure for waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) reverse logistic network design (RLND) processes. It is obvious that policies/laws/regulations related to WEEE management provide a sustainable framework for implementation in the RLND. The question is here: Does the implementation of WEEE directives make sense in terms of reducing the total cost of the network in the long term? This study aims to compare regulatory and non-regulatory situations of WEEE RLND in developing countries by formulating two models named as ‘regulatory’ and ‘non-regulatory’. Model 1 is considered as sustainable with economic, environmental and social goals, and the quotas imposed by the environmental directive are taken into consideration as the data of product return amount. In Model 2, only economic goal is considered, and product return amount is forecasted using Artificial Neural Network (ANN). A case study is conducted in a recycling company in order to evaluate performance of the proposed models. This study contributes to the relevant literature by (1) comparing the regulatory and non-regulatory situations RL models explicitly and (2) proposing ANN model to forecast EEE product return or WEEE quantity for non-regulatory situation.     

Environmental and economic benefit of recycling model of packaging waste: a case study on aluminum

Abstract

In order to achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources, save energy and protect environment and ecosystem, it is important for a region or a nation to develop and implement a viable waste recycling model from both theoretical and practical point of view. Some packaging recycling models operated in developed countries are introduced in this article. Aluminium can recovery and recycling is emphasized. Cost effective, economic and environmental benefit of different models are compared and analyzed. The result shows that all recycling models have their characteristics due to the initial purpose of recovery and the situation of the implementing country. However, all the models contribute to the reduction of municipal solid waste disposal and resources conservation.     

Using Visual Impact Metaphors to Stimulate Environmentally Friendly Behavior: The Roles of Response Efficacy and Evaluative Persuasion Knowledge

ABSTRACT

Although people often are aware of the importance of adopting environmentally friendly lifestyles, they might be reluctant to do so as they believe that their actions do not make a difference (i.e. low response efficacy). Furthermore, they might experience reactance (e.g. negative attitudes) towards environmental messages that encourage them to adopt an environmentally friendly lifestyle. Therefore we experimentally tested whether it is possible to stimulate people to adopt an environmentally friendly lifestyle (i.e. recycle more clothing) by using visual impact metaphors that convey the message that old clothes deserve a new life. The findings show that a message in the form of a visual impact metaphor (vs. no visual impact metaphor) results in more positive attitudes towards recycling and stronger recycling intentions. This effect was mediated by two different underlying mechanisms: Response efficacy and more positive attitudes towards the persuasive attempt (i.e. positive evaluative persuasion knowledge).     

中国主要电子废物产生量估算

在分析了电子废物类型及其可能造成的主要环境问题的基础上。根据电子电器产品的销量、社会保有量以及产品寿命期等因子建立模型对我国2000-2010年间的电脑、电视机、冰箱、洗衣机、空调等5大类电子电器产品的年度废弃量进行估算。结果显示到2003年电脑年度废弃量达到447万台，总体呈增长趋势；电视机、冰箱的废弃量在2003年分别达到4229万台和976万台；洗衣机年度废弃量有一定波动。大约在2005年达到一个高峰，废弃量为1521万台；空调废弃量相对于其他家电较少，但一直处于稳步增长期。并在此基础估算了我国2003年主要电子废物中的可回收资源含量。量大而且增长较快的电子废物的处置和资源再生化将是我国电子废物管理面临的一个难题。     

绿证交易、发售电配额制与可再生能源财税减负效应

为促进清洁能源消纳利用和减轻标杆电价政策财税负担,绿色电力证书(绿证)核发和认购制度已在全国试行。为验证两类政策并存下绿证交易的财税减负作用,该文构建绿证定价和财税减负效应模型,分类探讨不同交易机制和配额安排:绿证自由市场、发售电配额强制市场交易如何影响售证方定价策略和配额主体履约抉择,论证绿证市场均衡和政策互动如何影响可再生能源补助支出、电价附加和绿证交易的税负转嫁效应。模型论证与分类市场情景表明:①绿证交易提供了低成本履约的制度安排,有助于财税减负;②电力市场管制和交叉补贴电价政策下,发电商配额导致火电企业最优履约抉择是自建绿电项目而非绿证交易,绿证市场有价无市;③售电配额的市场交易效率更高,但发电商实施领导跟随-产量最优策略将造成电力和绿证价格双攀升,变相增加电价负担;④并网消纳和补贴拖欠削弱绿证价格而降低补贴转嫁,售电配额调整通过跨区绿电需求变化影响税负转嫁。这些结论蕴含的政策意义是:①兼顾绿电支付意愿、成本分担与应用目标,健全绿证认购市场体系;②理顺绿证定价与惩罚机制,确保绿证市场竞争均衡与履约效率;③完善省级配额机制,引导具备成本优势的跨区绿证交易;④协调政策互动效应,增强绿电溢价和绿证减负效应。     

Environmental and economic viability of Alkali Activated Material (AAM) comprising slag,fly ash and spent coffee ground

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a concept of reusing spent coffee ground (CG) as a construction material. Through creating a CG-filled Alkali Activated Material (AAM) with industrial wastes such as fly ash (FA) and slag (S), a strong recycled material was synthesised and found suitable to be used as a road subgrade fill material. Potential groundwater contamination tests were done in accordance to the Australian Standard Leaching Procedure (ASLP). The environmental analysis done on this green material shows that albeit being composed of various industrial wastes and chemicals, CG-filled AAMs in the ground will not cause adverse environmental impacts to surrounding soils and groundwater. Heavy metals and cyanide leached from the AAMs were well below hazardous thresholds. Comparing the carbon footprint of CG, it is found that recycling CG into a construction material would reduce the nett global carbon emission by reducing dependency on quarried material. Cost analyses done on CG-filled AAMs show that these AAMs are expensive to produce relative to traditional construction materials. However, as recycling technology is progressively advancing, in the future the economic value of CG-filled AAM may increase to match those of contemporary construction materials.     

Study on the Circular Agriculture Development in Beijing’s Mountain Areas

Abstract

Circular agriculture is an essential way to realize the positive recycling of ecology and harmonious development of the country construction. The sustainable development of Beijing’s mountain areas depends on the background and orientation of ecological economy. Beijing’s mountain areas bear the responsibility of protecting the ecological safety of the whole Beijing district and also the exploration of circular agriculture in mountain areas is very important to promote the sustainable use of agriculture resources. Beijing’s mountain areas have possessed some practical experience in recycling agriculture development. Through summarizing the development mode and analyzing the development practice, the article puts forward three key segments of promoting Beijing circular agriculture development: strengthen propagate, develop superiority and built management mechanism.     

Policy entrepreneurs in international river basins—getting climate adaptation on the cross-border water policy agenda

In this study, we look at the role which water policy entrepreneurs play in promoting and stimulating climate adaptation measures in international river basins. In a Dutch-German case study in the Rhine delta, we explore the range of strategies that policy entrepreneurs employ in cross-border water management to effectively anchor and embed climate adaptation in the water policy debate.

We focus on climate adaptation on the local and regional scale in the Deltarhine region where increased flooding and prolonged drought periods are expected under the current climate change scenarios with a considerable impact on flood protection, agricultural activities, drinking water and ecosystem development.

We analyse the impact of policy entrepreneurs while coping with the challenging cross-border setting and dealing with structural differences in national systems such as the legal and institutional framework. It is shown that whilst the European water guidelines advocate a river basin approach across borders, the guidelines do not (yet) play a catalyst role regarding climate adaptation, and the presence and activities of policy entrepreneurs contribute in putting climate adaptation on the cross-border policy agenda.

Finally, marked differences in the presence of entrepreneurs in Germany and the Netherlands are observed for which two important complementary explanations are offered relating to contextual elements of power asymmetry and dependency as well as different policy styles and organisational cultures in both countries.

     

Cost-effectiveness of recycling and recirculation of natural and energy resources based on the equality principle

A cost structure is proposed for optimizing the recirculation and recycling of commodities and energy usage considering regional, national and global operating scales. The methodology proposed involves business administration theory and economics and employs the previously introduced equality principle and the model for efficient use of resources for optimal production economy (EUROPE) to impose shadow costs on unwanted material wastes and energy residuals that produce economic incentives to reduce such wastes at the source. A case study presents the practical application of the proposed theory in a national and a global context. It is concluded that the presented methodology is useful for increasing the cost-effectiveness and optimizing recirculation and recycling in the usage of energy resources and natural resources in general. Profitability increases, technology is advanced and environmental conditions improve simultaneously through the application of the EUROPE model to analyze government policy related to the recirculation and recycling of solid wastes and energy. Furthermore, the equity of the distribution of such recirculation and recycling facilities is improved. The developed methods are useful information support tools for decision-making in the management of energy and other natural resources with emphasis on the economics of recirculated and recycled residuals.     

Harmful and Needless Emission of Refrigerant and Countermeasures

Abstract

Refrigerants used in refrigerators are an important source of ozone depleting substances released into the atmosphere, and can have a significantly negative effect on the hole in the ozone layer. But most emission of refrigerants is man-made, unreasonable and needless. Since in most emission cases the refrigerants are contained in the refrigerators, we can retrieve them by some technique that changes the ‘manual emission’ into manual retrieving. To promote the retrieval action and diminish the pollution, society can use economic, administrative and technical countermeasures, which can create a ‘good-cycle’ both ‘harnessing pollution and earning income simultaneously’, reinforce the motive of retrieving, and retrieve most proportion of refrigerants used by all refrigerators. This ‘good-cycle’ method can be easily promoted, and also a valuable way to promote other forms of environmental protection. The three countermeasures have almost no social cost, even no cost at all.     

Value of information in product recovery decisions: a Bayesian approach

There is a widespread recognition of the need for better information sharing and provision to improve the viability of end-of-life (EOL) product recovery operations. The emergence of automated data capture and sharing technologies such as RFID, sensors and networked databases has enhanced the ability to make product information; available to recoverers, which will help them make better decisions regarding the choice of recovery option for EOL products. However, these technologies come with a cost attached to it, and hence the question ‘what is its value?’ is critical. This paper presents a probabilistic approach to model product recovery decisions and extends the concept of Bayes' factor for quantifying the impact of product information on the effectiveness of these decisions. Further, we provide a quantitative examination of the factors that influence the value of product information, this value depends on three factors: (i) penalties for Type I and Type II errors of judgement regarding product quality; (ii) prevalent uncertainty regarding product quality and (iii) the strength of the information to support/contradict the belief. Furthermore, we show that information is not valuable under all circumstances and derive conditions for achieving a positive value of information.     

Construction and demolition waste generation in cities in India: an integrated approach

ABSTRACT

This paper quantifies construction and demolition waste (C&DW) generation rate in Indian cities using bottom-up material flow analysis approach. A dynamic model was applied to different classes of cities in India to investigate how C&DW generation rate varies across different classes of cities. The data on construction and demolition activities in different classes of cities were estimated from information reported in secondary literature. The results show that urban areas in India generated over 150 million tonnes of C&DW in 2016, and almost 50% of waste was generated in small to medium towns. The paper concludes with discussion on opportunities for recycling of C&DW and closing the material loops in Indian cities.     

Decision rules for recycling returned products

Most retail and on-line outlets allow customers to easily return defective or even non-defective products. Due to increasing environmental and sustainable concerns, disposal of returned products is often costly and undesirable. Furthermore, these products contain parts and materials of value that can contribute to the companies' profit. One way to take advantage of these returns is by utilising good returned parts in production of after-market products. Recycling of parts from products at the end of their useful lives has been studied for a long time. Many of these studies, however, are focused on repairs and refurbishing of such products for reuse.

This paper addresses recycling of rather new parts recovered from returned products. In this process parts are assembled with other parts recovered from other products to make a complete unit. The main objective of this study is to provide quantitative decision rules for justification of recycling of returned parts. The proposed method consists of a computer-based simulation decision model that, given a set of production system parameters, determines the breakeven point for the primary production rate at which recycling is justified. The application of the system to several scenarios is demonstrated through a numerical example.     

The application of system dynamics in different practices of a waste management system

The continuous increase in waste generation warrants global management of waste to reduce the adverse economic, social, and environmental impact of waste while achieving goals for sustainability. The complexity of waste management systems due to different waste management practices renders such systems difficult to analyze. System dynamics (SD) approach aids in conceptualizing and analyzing the structure, interactions, and mode of behavior of the complex systems. The impact of the underlying components can therefore be assessed in an integrated way while the impact of possible policies on the system can be studied to implement appropriate decisions. This review summarizes various applications of SD pertinent to the waste management practices in different countries. Practices may include waste generation, reduction, reuse/recovery, recycling, and disposal. Each study supports regional-demanding targets in environmental, social, and economic scopes such as expanding landfill life span, implementing proper disposal fee, global warming mitigation, energy generation/saving, etc. The interacting variables in the WMS are specifically determined based on the defined problem, ultimate goal, and the type of waste. Generally, population and gross domestic product can increase the waste generation. An increase in waste reduction, source separation, and recycling rate could decrease the environmental impact, but it is not necessarily profitable from an economic perspective. Incentives to separate waste and knowledge about waste management are variables that always have a positive impact on the entire system.