麻栎混交林空间结构与物种多样性研究

林分空间结构是指林木在林地上的分布格局,以及林木之间树种、大小、分布等空间关系。林分空间结构决定了树木之间的竞争势及其空间生态位,在很大程度上决定了林分的稳定性、发展的可能性和经营空间的大小。研究目的在于揭示麻栎混交林林分空间结构与物种多样性特征,为林分空间结构调整和物种多样性保护提供理论依据。利用混交度、大小比数和角尺度3种空间结构参数,以及丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数等物种多样性数量指标,分析了青阳县麻栎混交林林分空间结构以及群落物种多样性特征。结果表明:乔木层优势树种麻栎多为中度以下混交,小叶栎和枫香多为强度和极强度混交;麻栎在空间大小和重要值对比上占有优势地位,小叶栎处于次要地位,枫香处于劣势地位为受压树种;从林分平面布局上看,该林分空间分布多为随机分布。分层物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数依次是乔木层<草(含藤)本层<灌木层;而均匀度Pielou指数则是乔木层<灌木层<草(含藤)本层;生态优势度Simpson指数为乔木层>草本层>灌木层;灌木层有17科18属21种植物,淡竹占优势地位,野茉莉、山胡椒等占亚优势地位;草本层有10科12属13种植物,禾叶土麦...     

Dynamics of snowmelt water composition in conifer forests exposed to airborne industrial pollution

An analysis is made of the spatial variability of snowmelt water composition (within and between biogeocenoses), with regard to its long-term dynamics, in pine and spruce forests exposed to airborne industrial pollution from the Europe’s largest Severonikel Copper–Nickel Smelter Complex. Snowmelt waters from under the tree canopy, compared to those from intercrown areas, contain higher concentrations of chemical elements due to their washing and leaching from tree crowns. This is especially true of spruce forests, since the crowns of spruce trees have a high sorption capacity. Distinct trends in the long-term dynamics of snowmelt water composition, related to reduction of industrial emissions, are observed in background forest areas and defoliating forests but not in the vicinity of pollution sources. It is shown that the main factors determining these dynamics in forests of the Kola Peninsula are edificator tree species, airborne industrial pollution, and, possibly, an increase in the number of days with above-zero temperatures in the period of snow accumulation, which facilitates washing and leaching of chemical compounds from tree crowns.     

麻栎混交林空间结构与物种多样性研究

林分空间结构是指林木在林地上的分布格局,以及林木之间树种、大小、分布等空间关系。林分空间结构决定了树木之间的竞争势及其空间生态位,在很大程度上决定了林分的稳定性、发展的可能性和经营空间的大小。研究目的在于揭示麻栎混交林林分空间结构与物种多样性特征,为林分空间结构调整和物种多样性保护提供理论依据。利用混交度、大小比数和角尺度3种空间结构参数,以及丰富度指数、Shannon Wiener指数、Pielou指数等物种多样性数量指标,分析了青阳县麻栎混交林林分空间结构以及群落物种多样性特征。结果表明：乔木层优势树种麻栎多为中度以下混交,小叶栎和枫香多为强度和极强度混交;麻栎在空间大小和重要值对比上占有优势地位,小叶栎处于次要地位,枫香处于劣势地位为受压树种;从林分平面布局上看,该林分空间分布多为随机分布。分层物种丰富度和Shannon Wiener指数依次是乔木层＜草（含藤）本层＜灌木层;而均匀度Pielou指数则是乔木层＜灌木层＜草（含藤）本层;生态优势度Simpson指数为乔木层＞草本层＞灌木层;灌木层有17科18属21种植物,淡竹占优势地位,野茉莉、山胡椒等占亚优势地位;草本层有10科12属13种植物,禾叶土麦冬占优势地位,其次是求米草、爬山虎等。林分空间结构和物种多样性数量特征分析结果均表明该森林类型具有稳定结构的群落特征。〖     

Intra-urban biomonitoring: Source apportionment using tree barks to identify air pollution sources

It is of great interest to evaluate if there is a relationship between possible sources and trace elements using biomonitoring techniques. In this study, tree bark samples of 171 trees were collected using a biomonitoring technique in the inner city of São Paulo. The trace elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr and Zn) were determined by the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the plausible sources associated with tree bark measurements. The greatest source was vehicle-induced non-tailpipe emissions derived mainly from brakes and tires wear-out and road dust resuspension (characterized with Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn), which was explained by 27.1% of the variance, followed by cement (14.8%), sea salt (11.6%) and biomass burning (10%), and fossil fuel combustion (9.8%). We also verified that the elements related to vehicular emission showed different concentrations at different sites of the same street, which might be helpful for a new street classification according to the emission source. The spatial distribution maps of element concentrations were obtained to evaluate the different levels of pollution in streets and avenues. Results indicated that biomonitoring techniques using tree bark can be applied to evaluate dispersion of air pollution and provide reliable data for the further epidemiological studies.     

Distribution and ratios of Cs and K in control and K-treated coconut trees at Bikini Island where nuclear test fallout occurred: effects and implications

Coconut trees growing on atolls of the Bikini Islands are on the margin of K deficiency because the concentration of exchangeable K in coral soil is very low, ranging from only 20 to 80 mg kg⁻¹. When provided with additional K, coconut trees absorb large quantities of K and this uptake of K significantly alters the patterns of distribution of ¹³⁷Cs within the plant. Following a single K fertilization event, mean total K in trunks of K-treated trees is 5.6 times greater than in trunks of control trees. In contrast, ¹³⁷Cs concentration in trunks of K-treated and control trees is statistically the same while ¹³⁷Cs is significantly lower in edible fruits of K-treated trees. Within one year after fertilization (one rainy season), K concentration in soil is back to naturally low concentrations. However, the tissue concentrations of K in treated trees stays very high internally in the trees for years while ¹³⁷Cs concentration in treated trees remains very low in all tree compartments except for the trunk. Potassium fertilization did not change soil Cs availability.     

中国工业水污染排放的空间格局及结构演变研究

我国工业企业污染物排放的空间格局正在发生变化。现有的统计数据不能提供区分区域和行业层面的工业企业污染物排放数据,无法刻画地市尺度上各个工业部门污染排放的空间格局及其演变。工业企业污染物排放的空间认知是制定环境污染控制和区域产业发展规划的科学基础。本文聚焦于工业水污染,构建了新的工业企业水污染排放的空间估算方法,估算分行业分区域的工业水污染排放量,来分析地市尺度上中国工业水污染排放的空间格局及其演变。本文构建的空间估算方法首先将全国分行业污染排放量依据产值分解到省级和地市层面,再依据企业规模校正系数、生产工艺校正系数和环境管制能力校正系数对未考虑区域差异的排放强度进行校正,最后采用适时修正法对污染物排放量的估算结果进行部门和区域的平衡调整。以基于空间估算方法估算的工业COD为例,剔除个别异常值后,2010年省级尺度重点行业工业COD排放量估算结果的平均误差为12.7%,数据质量优良,显示本估算方法较强的适用性。根据本文的结果,发现2005年至2010年间我国工业COD的减排主要由造纸及纸制品业的技术效应贡献,其中又以西部地区造纸及纸制品业贡献突出,其次是东部地区,中部地区略有贡献,东北部地区贡献为负值。其他对工业COD减排作出较大贡献的行业包括食品加工业和化学原料及化学品制造业,但不同产业的区域差异显著。基于可持续性发展的视角,技术效应与规模效应同样显著的产业应当作为区域的主导产业予以重点发展。     

Pb, Zn, and Cu levels in tree barks as indicator of atmospheric pollution

Barks of seven species of trees were sampled at 32 locations having different pollution levels in Abeokuta, Nigeria. The concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cu were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. The Pb and Zn contents, 1.9-159.8 and 16.5-659.1 micrograms g-1, dry weight respectively, correlate with traffic volume, indicating pollution from anthropogenic sources. The results obtained for Cu, 4.2-20.7 micrograms g-1, dry weight, though lower, were still significant but did not show any correlation with traffic density. The study also confirms the suitability of Azadirachta indica (Dogoyaro--a very popular local tree) as a suitable bio-indicator of aerial fallout of heavy metals.     

经济集聚对雾霾污染影响的空间计量研究——以长江三角洲地区为例

雾霾污染是困扰中国经济发展的重大民生与环境问题。基于改进产出密度模型,运用地统计和空间计量模型分析长三角城市2015~2017年雾霾污染空间格局和影响因素。研究发现：（1）雾霾污染存在季节性变化特征并且各城市雾霾污染状况逐渐好转。（2）雾霾污染具有显著的局域集聚特征和空间异质性,杭州、宁波和台州呈现低－低集聚特征,而滁州、扬州、镇江和泰州为高－高集聚型,污染区域集中于省界处,污染程度自西北向东南逐渐降低。雾霾污染存在显著的城际空间正相关和空间溢出效应,周边城市雾霾污染对本地区会产生负影响。（3）长三角城市人口集聚、研发投入、产业结构、工业烟粉尘排放及城市建设均对雾霾污染产生正向影响,对外开放、能源消耗以及降水等因素对雾霾污染产生负向影响;雾霾污染与经济增长之间不存在库兹涅茨曲线关系。经济集聚通过优化生产要素的空间分布与组合、共享治污基础设施等,形成雾霾污染抑制作用。     

经济转型背景下工业污染时空格局演变及其驱动因素研究——以长江三角洲地区为例

合力打好污染防治攻坚战、强化区域生态环境共保是全面贯彻落实绿色发展理念,推动长三角地区更高质量一体化发展的重要内容。在中国区域经济转型发展背景下,利用城市工业污染物排放和经济社会发展统计数据,重点分析了2003～2015年长三角地区主要工业污染物排放相对规模和强度的时空格局演变规律,探讨了经济转型发展等因素对工业污染时空格局的动态影响机制。研究结果表明:(1)长三角地区主要工业污染物排放相对规模和强度总体呈下降趋势,2003～2015年工业废水、SO_2排放总量分别削减约13%和24%,每万亿元工业总产值的废水、SO_2和烟(粉)尘排放量分别削减87%、88%和71%左右。(2)工业污染排放仍主要集聚在沿沪宁、沿长江和沿沪杭甬等工业发达地区以及部分资源型城市,并呈现由核心区向皖江城市带、苏北等外围区转移扩散的态势,但不同污染物之间差异较为显著。(3)外围区工业污染物排放相对强度较高(多为1.0以上),但近年来南京、杭州等核心区的工业污染物(尤其是工业粉尘)排放相对强度有所上升。(4)经济转型是工业污染时空格局演变的重要驱动力,其中产业结构升级、创新与消费驱动转型增长等是抑制工业污染物排放规模扩张的重要因素;而创新投入及技术进步、企业质效提升、外资外贸结构优化等则有利于降低工业污染物排放相对强度;但由于各地经济转型阶段不同,上述因素对工业污染的影响机制存在显著的空间差异。该研究揭示了经济转型背景下工业污染时空格局演变及驱动因素,对于强化新时期长三角地区工业污染协同防治等具有一定政策参考价值。     

1998~2016年中国大气PM2.5污染浓度空间格局演化 ——基于339个城市的实证研究

摘要： 近年来,与PM2.5相关的大气环境质量状况和改善问题一直是社会和公众关注的热点话题。通过选取中国339个地级市为研究对象,采用重心模型和局部空间自相关的研究方法,对中国339个城市大气PM2.5污染浓度空间格局演化进行实证分析。结果显示：（1）从重心分析来看,1998~2016年内的中国大气PM2.5污染浓度几何重心位于渭河平原附近以及中国东部和北方的大气PM2.5污染程度分别相对高于西部和南方地区。（2）从局部空间自相关分析来看,1998~2016年期间“高-高”类型的空间正相关的地区主要集中在华北地区、华中地区、华东地区、长江中下游沿岸城市及四川盆地;“低-低”类型的空间正相关的地区主要集中在西南和西北地区,也零星出现在东北和福建的部分城市中。最后对中国大气PM2.5污染空间格局进行初步成因探析。     

安徽大别山区杉木人工林乔木层生物量模型及碳贮量

根据杉木人工林年龄(10、22、45、48和50年生)梯度,在安徽大别山海拔较高山地调查了23块20m×20m的样地,采集18株不同径阶和树高的标准木,进行了生物量测定。利用7种常用的分别以D、D2、DH和D2 H为自变量的生物量模型对其进行拟合,得到35个生物量估算模型。结果显示,幂函数模型的拟合效果较好,多项式模型效果较差,从中优选出5个最优模型,枝、干、根和全株的最优模型是W=aDb形式的幂函数模型,叶的最优模型是W=a+bD2+cD4形式的多项式模型。杉木不同器官的碳含量变化范围在46.64%~53.13%,过熟林(45~50年生)杉木不同器官的碳含量按高低排列均为树皮树根树叶树枝树干,根系碳含量高于地上部枝叶的碳含量,而中幼林龄(10和22年生)杉木地下部分树根的碳含量明显低于地上部分。碳贮量在不同器官中的分配,10和22年生的高低排序为树干树枝树根树叶,过熟林杉木的高低排序为树干树根树枝树叶。不同林龄杉木林生物量碳贮量分别为10年生59.39、22年生59.55、45年生136.92、48年生201.25和50年生134.60Mg C/hm2。不同林龄的杉木林根系生物量碳贮量比例为14.84%~23.79%,随林龄的增长而提高。研究结果显示较高海拔的立地环境促进了杉木林地下根系生物量积累,这种生物量分配可能对土壤有机碳蓄积产生重要影响。     

Spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, electrical conductivity and nitrate concentration, and risk assessment of nitrate contamination in North China Plain

In recent years, nitrate (NO3) contamination of groundwater has become a growing concern for people in rural areas in North China Plain (NCP) where groundwater is used as drinking water. The objective of this study was to evaluate groundwater resource level, to determine groundwater quality and to assess the risk of NO3 pollution in groundwater in Quzhou County in the NCP. Ordinary Kriging (OK) method was used to analyze the spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, groundwater electrical conductivity (EC) and NO3-N concentrations, and Indictor Kriging (IK) method was used to analyze the data with NO3-N concentrations equal or greater than the groundwater NO3 pollution threshold (20 mg L(-1)). The results indicated that groundwater level averaged 9.81 m, a level 6 m lower than in 1990. The spatial correlation distances for groundwater level, EC and NO3-N concentration were 21.93, 2.19 and 3.55 km, respectively. The contour map showed that shallow groundwater level areas extended from north to south across the County. Groundwater EC was above 3 dS m(-1) in the most part of the northern county. Groundwater NO3 pollution (NO3-N> or =20 mg L(-1)) mainly occurred in the County Seat areas due to wastewater irrigation and excessive fertilizer leaching from agricultural fields. At Henantuang town, besides suburban of the County Seat, groundwater was also contaminated by NO3 shown by the map generated using the IK method, which was not reflected in the map generated using the OK method. The map generated using the OK method could not reflect correctly the groundwater NO3 pollution status. The IK method is useful to assess the risk of NO3 pollution by giving the conditional probability of NO3 concentration exceeding the threshold value. It is suggested that risk assessment of NO3 pollution is useful for better managing groundwater resource, preventing soil salinization and minimizing NO3 pollution in groundwater.     

A study on the correlation between 13C/12C variations in tree rings and the growth pattern of trees

A specimen of Araucaria angustifolia from the south of Brazil was analyzed for ¹³C/¹²C variations in the cellulose of the tree rings. Those data, when compared with the growth pattern of the tree, showed a good correlation (r = ? 0.72) over a period of 200 years. A collection of six European trees was analyzed for the same effect and, although the expected inverse relation is evident from the graphical representation, the correlation coefficients are small. This is certainly due to the large scatter of δ¹³C data from those trees.     

Modelling the trade-off between fire and grazing in a tropical savanna landscape, northern Australia.

As savannas are widespread across northern Australia and provide northern rangelands, the sustainable use of this landscape is crucial. Both fire and grazing are known to influence the tree-grass character of tropical savannas. Frequent fires open up the tree layer and change the ground layer from perennials to that dominated by annuals. Annual species in turn produce copious quantities of highly flammable fuel that perpetuates frequent, hot fires. Grazing reduces fuel loads because livestock consumes fuel-forage. This trade-off between fire and grazing was modelled using a spatially explicit, process-orientated model (SAVANNA) and field data from fire experiments performed in the Victoria River District of northern Australia. Results of simulating fire (over 40 years) with minimal or no grazing pressure revealed a reduction in the shrub and woody plants, a reduction in grasses, and no influence on the tree structure given mild fires. While mature trees were resistant to fire, immature trees, which are more likely associated with the shrub layer, were removed by fire. The overall tree density may be reduced with continual burning over longer time periods because of increasing susceptibility of old trees to fire and the lack of recruitment. Increases in stocking rates created additional forage demands until the majority of the fuel load was consumed, thus effectively suppressing fire and reverting to the grazing and suppressed fire scenario where trees and shrubs established.     

中国雾霾空间分布特征及影响因素分析

近年来我国雾霾天气频发,以PM_(10)和PM_(2.5)为核心的大气污染物对人体健康和大气环境质量造成了严重威胁,已经成为当前不容忽视且亟需解决的重大民生问题和环境问题,深入分析雾霾污染的形成原因和影响因素对于科学制定切实有效的治霾政策具有重要的现实意义。本文基于我国288个地级以上城市2015年1月—2017年2月的月均空气质量AQI数据,首先采用空间统计方法对雾霾污染空间分布的季节特征进行可视化描述,其次通过空间自相关指数对雾霾污染的空间集聚特征进行了实证检验,最后在此基础上建立空间计量模型对影响雾霾污染的社会经济因素进行了经验识别。结果表明:(1)我国雾霾污染的季节性特征明显,夏季空气质量状况最好,春季和秋季次之,冬季污染最严重且波及范围广,其中河北南部、河南北部、山西南部和陕西关中地区是污染重灾区,季均空气质量均为中度污染以上。(2)雾霾污染存在显著的空间正相关特征,我国东部沿海地区表现为显著的低低集聚,华北平原及周边地区呈现显著的高高集聚特征。(3)空间回归结果显示,我国雾霾污染与经济增长的关系在一定程度上与EKC曲线假说相符,其中二产畸高的产业结构、民用汽车保有量的增多和省会城市均对雾霾污染有显著的正向促进作用,但人口密度和绿化水平对雾霾污染的影响并不显著。因此,治霾政策应坚持城市内部以促进产业结构转型升级、鼓励使用新能源汽车和共享单车、疏散省会城市的职能为主,城市外部应以区域联防联控为主,从而达到缓解和改善大气环境的目的。     

Biotic, temporal and spatial variability of tritium concentrations in transpirate samples collected in the vicinity of a near-surface low-level nuclear waste disposal site and nearby research reactor

The results of a 21 month sampling program measuring tritium in tree transpirate with respect to local sources are reported. The aim was to assess the potential of tree transpirate to indicate the presence of sub-surface seepage plumes.Transpirate gathered from trees near low-level nuclear waste disposal trenches contained activity concentrations of ³H that were significantly higher (up to ∼700 Bq L⁻¹) than local background levels (0-10 Bq L⁻¹). The effects of the waste source declined rapidly with distance to be at background levels within 10s of metres. A research reactor 1.6 km south of the site contributed significant (p < 0.01) local fallout ³H but its influence did not reach as far as the disposal trenches.The elevated ³H levels in transpirate were, however, substantially lower than groundwater concentrations measured across the site (ranging from 0 to 91% with a median of 2%). Temporal patterns of tree transpirate ³H, together with local meteorological observations, indicate that soil water within the active root zones comprised a mixture of seepage and rainfall infiltration. The degree of mixing was variable given that the soil water activity concentrations were heterogeneous at a scale equivalent to the effective rooting volume of the trees. In addition, water taken up by roots was not well mixed within the trees. Based on correlation modelling, net rainfall less evaporation (a surrogate for infiltration) over a period of from 2 to 3 weeks prior to sampling seems to be the optimum predictor of transpirate ³H variability for any sampled tree at this site.The results demonstrate successful use of ³H in transpirate from trees to indicate the presence and general extent of sub-surface contamination at a low-level nuclear waste site.     

Structure and formation of conifer stands in the upper timberline ecotone on the North Chuya Ridge,Central Altai

The structure of Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour.) and Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) stands and specific features of their formation have been studies in the forest-tundra ecotone on the North Chuya Ridge (2235–2475 m a.s.l.). Changes in the structure of these stands along the transition from the upper boundary of closed forests to the high-mountain tundra have proved to have an ambiguous pattern. Both tree species form mixed clusters of similar-aged trees in the lower part of the ecotone but grow singly, in scatters, in its upper part. The formation of conifer stands (tree clusters) in the lower part of the ecotone, on the slopes of the Aktru River valley, began during climate warming in the second half of the 19th century. The expansion of confers to its upper part took place markedly later, in the early 20th century (Siberian larch) or even in the 1930s (Siberian stone pine).     

Land clearance not dieback continues to drive tree loss in a Tasmanian rural landscape

Tree cover has declined markedly since European settlement in the agricultural areas of Australia due to land clearing and natural and stress-induced senescence of remnant trees combined with widespread regeneration failure. These decreases in tree cover have seldom been quantified on a landscape scale, but are important in understanding losses in carbon storage and biodiversity across large areas of the continent. We used historical aerial photography and satellite imagery to study changes in tree canopy cover in the southern Tasmanian Midlands, one of the oldest agricultural regions in Australia. Tree cover at 1,000 random sites was assessed from imagery captured on four occasions between 1947 and 2010. Tree cover was stable between 1947 and the 1970s, but decreased from 33 % in the 1970s to 21 % in 2010. The decrease appeared driven by transition from some cover to no cover, rather than from more cover to less cover, because sites with tree cover in 2010 showed little net change during the study period. Statistical modelling showed soils derived from igneous rocks lost more cover than did the less fertile sedimentary soils, and contrary to the expectations, if drought was the cause of cover loss, sun-exposed north-facing sites did not lose more cover than south-facing ones. We argue that these temporal and spatial patterns of tree cover change are consistent with tree clearing rather than loss of remnant isolated trees due to drought-induced dieback.     

Species-specific effects of P-solubilizing and N<Subscript>2</Subscript>-fixing bacteria on seedling growth of three salt-tolerant trees

Coastal afforestation suffers from low survival and slow growth due to harsh conditions and lack of robust seedlings. Inoculation of P-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) or N₂-fixing bacteria (NFB) are effective in promoting plant growth and thus potentially helpful for coastal afforestation. However, it remains unclear about the generality and specificity of these plant-growth-promoting-bacteria (PGPB) on the growth of salttolerant trees. We inoculated seedlings of two mangrove trees and one terrestrial salt-tolerant tree with pure cultures of PSB or mixed cultures of PSB and NFB. Plant biomass, height, base diameter and N and P concentrations were determined six months after bacterial inoculation. We found that inoculation of PGPB had an overall promoting effect on the seedling growth of three tree species, but the effects differed greatly (3–280% increase) among plant species and bacterial isolates or bacterial combinations. Only in the terrestrial tree, co-inoculations of PSB and NFB showed greater promoting effects than monocultures of PSB. Root: shoot ratios of seedlings were not changed by bacterial inoculation. Inoculation treatments moderately elevated N concentrations in shoots and roots and P concentrations only in roots of seedlings. Our results suggest that PGPB might have a general promoting effect on the seedling growth of salt-tolerant trees. Nevertheless, the magnitude of promoting effects and the comparative advantage of dual inoculation over single inoculation are species-specific. The generality and specificity of the plant-PGPB relationship are similar to the plantmycorrhizal symbiosis. In addition, tissue nutrient improvement might not be the main mechanism of the promoting effects by PGPB.     

Spatial correlation network and population mobility effect of regional haze pollution: empirical evidence from Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration in China

Based on relevant data from 2014 to 2018, we constructed a spatial network of haze pollution in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region by using a modified gravity model, explored the network structure characteristics and influencing factors of urban agglomeration with the SNA and the QAP method, and discussed the population mobility effect brought by haze pollution. The results showed that the PRD region has spatial correlation in terms of haze pollution. Guangzhou was in the central position of the spatial network, yet Shenzhen and Foshan played a connecting role in the network. Economic development, urbanization, and environmental protection had significant positive impacts on the haze pollution spatial network. The results of the double-threshold regression showed that the city’s status in the haze pollution network represented by centrality had a positive impact on population mobility.