The use of real-time monitoring data to evaluate major sources of airborne particulate matter

Real-time chemical measurements have been made as part of a field study of air quality in the city and harbour of Cork, Ireland. The data relate to the year 2008, with particular attention paid to the period between May and August. Eight air quality parameters were measured: NO, O₃, NO₂, SO₂, EC, OC, particulate SO₄^2? and PM_2.5. The data have been used in a novel way involving wind and temporal averaging, along with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) methodologies to extrapolate major source contributions for PM_2.5. It is demonstrated that continuous monitoring of standard air quality parameters, such as NO, NO₂, SO₂, along with EC, OC and particulate SO₄^2?, can be used to provide relevant, cost-effective initial estimates of source contributions to ambient PM_2.5 levels. It is also shown that the benefit of including OC and particulate SO₄^2? in the monitoring protocol is considerable. Three major source groups of ambient PM_2.5 mass in Cork were identified and quantified using this combined monitoring and modelling approach; road transport (19%), domestic solid fuel burning (14%) and oil-fired domestic and industrial boilers, including power generation plants (31%).     

Source apportionment of particulate matter at urban mixed site in Indonesia using PMF

A receptor model of positive matrix factorization (PMF) was used to identify the emission sources of fine and coarse particulates in Bandung, a city located at about 150 km south-east of Jakarta. Total of 367 samples were collected at urban mixed site, Tegalega area, in Bandung City during wet and dry season in the period of 2001–2007. The samples of fine and coarse particulate matter were collected simultaneously using dichotomous samplers and mini-volume samplers. The Samples from dichotomous Samplers were analyzed for black carbon and elements while samples from mini-volume samplers were analyzed for ions. The species analyzed in this study were Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Pb, Cl^?, NO₃^?, SO₄^2?, and NH₄⁺. The data were then analyzed using PMF to determine the source factors. Different numbers of source factors were found during dry and wet season. During dry season, the main source factors for fine particles were secondary aerosol (NH₄)₂SO₄, electroplating industry, vehicle emission, and biomass burning, while for coarse particles, the dominant source factors were electroplating industry, followed by aged sea salt, volcanic dust, soil dust, and lime dust. During the wet season, the main source factors for fine particulate matter were vehicle emission and secondary aerosol. Other sources detected were biomass burning, lime dust, soil and volcanic dust. While for coarse particulate matter, the main source factors were sulphate-rich industry, followed by lime dust, soil dust, industrial emission and construction dust.     

Characterization of Particulates from Power Plants

The emphasis on participate control from industrial processes has been shifted recently towards fine particulates, having diameters less than 3 microns. There exists an urgent need for more scientific information of fine particle characterization.^1,2 Coal and oil fired power plants are among the largest anthropogenic point sources of particulate matter.³ Limited knowledge is available on particle size distribution and trace metal composition in power plant emissions.^4-7 The morphological properties of particle emissions have been largely neglected. In this report we present some information on particle characteristics for an oil-fired and coal-fired power plant.     

Characterization of the winter atmospheric aerosols in Kyoto and Seoul using PIXE,EAS and IC

Characteristics of atmospheric aerosols in Kyoto, Japan and Seoul, Korea were investigated using particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), elemental analysis system (EAS) and ion chromatograph (IC). Atmospheric aerosols were collected into fine and coarse fractions using a two-stage filter pack sampler in Kyoto and Seoul in winter of 1998. PIXE was applied to analyze the middle and heavy elements with atomic number greater than 14 (Si), and EAS was applied to analyze the light elements such as H, C and N. The total mass concentration in Seoul was about two times higher than in Kyoto and the concentration of Ca, Si, and Ti that are mainly originated from soil were remarkably higher in Seoul. During an Asian dust storm event, the concentration of soil components increased dramatically and amounted to about 15 times higher than average concentration. The fine/coarse ratios of NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻, and SO₄²⁻ were extremely high in both sites. The fact that nearly 70% of fine particles in both Kyoto and Seoul consist of the light elements (N, C, and H) suggests the importance of light elements measurement. Good mass closure for fine particles with light element data was achieved.     

Characterization of Major Chemical Components of Fine Particulate Matter in North Carolina

Abstract

This paper presents measurements of daily sampling of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and its major chemical components at three urban and one rural locations in North Carolina during 2002. At both urban and rural sites, the major insoluble component of PM_2.5 is organic matter, and the major soluble components are sulfate (SO₄ ^2?), ammonium (NH₄ ⁺), and nitrate (NO₃ ^?). NH₄ ⁺ is neutralized mainly by SO₄ ^2? rather than by NO₃ ^?, except in winter when SO₄ ^2? concentration is relatively low, whereas NO₃ ^? concentration is high. The equivalent ratio of NH₄ ⁺ to the sum of SO₄ ^2? and NO₃ ^? is <1, suggesting that SO₄ ^2?and NO₃ ^?are not completely neutralized by NH₄ ⁺. At both rural and urban sites, SO₄ ^2?concentration displays a maximum in summer and a minimum in winter, whereas NO₃ ^?displays an opposite seasonal trend. Mass ratio of NO₃ ^? to SO₄ ^2?is consistently <1 at all sites, suggesting that stationary source emissions may play an important role in PM_2.5 formation in those areas. Organic carbon and elemental carbon are well correlated at three urban sites although they are poorly correlated at the agriculture site. Other than the daily samples, hourly samples were measured at one urban site. PM_2.5 mass concen trations display a peak in early morning, and a second peak in late afternoon. Back trajectory analysis shows that air masses with lower PM_2.5 mass content mainly originate from the marine environment or from a continental environment but with a strong subsidence from the upper troposphere. Air masses with high PM_2.5 mass concentrations are largely from continental sources. Our study of fine particulate matter and its chemical composition in North Carolina provides crucial information that may be used to determine the efficacy of the new National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for PM fine. Moreover, the gas-to-particle conversion processes provide improved prediction of long-range transport of pollutants and air quality.     

The Contribution of Sulfate and Nitrate to Atmospheric Fine Particles During Winter Inversion Fogs in Cache Valley,Utah

Abstract

Air pollutants were collected in Logan, Cache County, UT, in February 1993 during two periods of atmospheric inversion accompanied by fog. The following atmospheric species were determined: (1) gaseous SO₂, NO₂ (semi-quantitatively),HNO3, NH3, and HF; (2) fine particulate SO₄ ⁼, NO₃ ^-, NH₄ ⁺, F–, H⁺, C, Si, S, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, Se, Br, and Sr, and; (3) fine particulate mass, which was calculated. The major components of fine particulate matter were carbonaceous material, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate, while the soil component was small. Calculated, fine particulate mass averaged 80 μg/m³ and reached concentrations as high as 120 μg/m³. SO₂/So_x and NO₂/NO_y mole ratios generally varied between 0.2 and 0.1 during inversions. These ratios also showed moderate but consistent diurnal patterns. The emission inventory for Cache County indicates sources of SO₂ and NO_x but not significant amounts of primary sulfate and nitrate. The observations reported here indicate there is significant conversion of SO₂ and NO_x in the presence of excess oxidants to sulfuric and nitric acid that are neutralized by excess ammonia.     

Attainment Flip-Flops and the Achievability of the Ozone Air Quality Standard

Abstract

This paper presents the results of the first reported study on fine particulate matter (PM) chemical composition at Salamanca, a highly industrialized urban area of Central Mexico. Samples were collected at six sites within the urban area during February and March 2003. Several trace elements, organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and six ions were analyzed to characterize aerosols. Average concentrations of PM with aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm (PM₁₀) and fine PM with aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) ranged from 32.2 to 76.6 μg m^-3 and 11.1 to 23.7 μg m^-3, respectively. OC (34%), SO₄ ⁼ (25.1%), EC (12.9%), and geological material (12.5%) were the major components of PM_2.5. For PM₁₀, geological material (57.9%), OC (17.3%), and SO₄ ⁼ (9.7%) were the major components. Coarse fraction (PM₁₀ –PM_2.5), geological material (81.7%), and OC (8.6%) were the dominant species, which amounted to 90.4%. Correlation analysis showed that sulfate in PM_2.5 was present as ammonium sulfate. Sulfate showed a significant spatial variation with higher concentrations to the north resulting from predominantly southwesterly winds above the surface layer and by major SO₂ sources that include a power plant and refinery. At the urban site of Cruz Roja it was observed that PM_2.5 mass concentrations were similar to the submicron fraction concentrations. Furthermore, the correlation between EC in PM_2.5 and EC measured from an aethalometer was r² = 0.710. Temporal variations of SO₂ and nitrogen oxide were observed during a day when the maximum concentration of PM_2.5 was measured, which was associated with emissions from the nearby refinery and power plant. From cascade impactor measurements, the three measured modes of airborne particles corresponded with diameters of 0.32, 1.8, and 5.6 μm.     

Evaluation of the RAMS Continuous Monitor for Determination of PM2.5 Mass Including Semi-Volatile Material in Philadelphia,PA

Abstract

The real-time ambient mass sampler (RAMS) is a continuous monitor based on particle concentrator, denuder, drier, and tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) monitor technology. It is designed to measure PM_2.5 mass, including the semi-volatile species NH₄NO₃ and semi-volatile organic material, but not to measure PM_2.5 water content. The performance of the RAMS in an urban environment with high humidity was evaluated during the July 1999 NARSTO-Northeast Oxidant and Particles Study (NEOPS) intensive study at the Baxter water treatment plant in Philadelphia, PA. The results obtained with the RAMS were compared to mass measurements made with a TEOM monitor and to constructed mass obtained with a Particle Concentrator-Brigham Young University Organic Sampling System (PC-BOSS) sampler designed to determine the chemical composition of fine particles, including the semi-volatile species. An average of 28% of the fine particulate material present during the study was semi-volatile organic material lost from a filter during particle collection, and 1% was NH₄NO₃ that was also lost from the particles during sampling. The remaining mass was dominantly nonvolatile (NH₄)₂SO₄ (31%) and organic material (37%), with minor amounts of soot, crustal material, and nonvolatile NH₄NO₃. Comparison of the RAMS and PC-BOSS results indicated that the RAMS correctly monitored for fine particulate mass, including the semi-volatile material. In contrast, the heated filter of the TEOM monitor did not measure the semi-volatile material. The comparison of the RAMS and PC-BOSS data had a precision of ±4.1 μg/m³ (±9.6%). The precision of the RAMS data was limited by the uncertainty in the blank correction for the reversible adsorption of water by the charcoal-impregnated cellulose sorbent filter of the RAMS monitor. The precision of the measurement of fine par-ticulate components by the PC-BOSS was ±6-8%.     

Precision and Accuracy in the Determination of Sulfur Oxides,Fluoride, and Spherical Aluminosilicate Fly Ash Particles in Project MOHAVE

The precision and accuracy of the determination of particu-late sulfate and fluoride, and gas phase SO₂ and HF are estimated from the results obtained from collocated replicate samples and from collocated comparison samples for high-and low-volume filter pack and annular diffusion denuder samplers. The results of replicate analysis of collocated samples and replicate analyses of a given sample for the determination of spherical aluminosilicate fly ash particles have also been compared. Each of these species is being used in the chemical mass balance source apportionment of sulfur oxides in the Grand Canyon region as part of Project MOHAVE, and the precision and accuracy analyses given in this paper provide input to that analysis. The precision of the various measurements reported here is ±1.8 nmol/m³ and ±2.5 nmol/m³ for the determination of SO₂ and sulfate, respectively, with an annular denuder. The precision is ±0.5 nmol/m³ and ±2.0 nmol/m³ for the determination of the same species with a high-volume or low-volume filter pack. The precision for the determination of the sum of HF(g) and fine particulate fluoride is ±0.3 nmol/m³. The precision for the determination of aluminosilicate fly ash particles is ±100 particles/m³. At high concentrations of the various species, reproducibility of the various measurements is ±10% to ±14% of the measured concentration. The concentrations of sulfate determined using filter pack samplers are frequently higher than those determined using diffusion denuder sampling systems. The magnitude of the difference (e.g., 2-10 nmol sulfate/m³) is small, but important relative to the precision of the data and the concentrations of particulate sul-fate present (typically 5-20 nmol sulfate/m³). The concentrations of SO₂(g) determined using a high-volume cascade impactor filter pack sampler are correspondingly lower than those obtained with diffusion denuder samplers. The concentrations of SO_x (SO₂(g) plus particulate sulfate) determined using the two samplers during Project MOHAVE at the Spirit Mountain, NV, and Hopi Point, AZ, sampling sites were in agreement. However, for samples collected at Painted Desert, AZ, and Meadview, AZ, the concentrations of SO_x and SO₂(g) determined with a high-volume cascade impactor filter pack sampler were frequently lower than those determined using a diffusion denuder sampling system. These two sites had very low ambient relative humidity, an average of 25%. Possible causes of observed differences in the SO₂(g) and sulfate results obtained from different types of samplers are given.     

Source Identification and Trends in Concentrations of Gaseous and Fine Particulate Principal Species in Seoul,South Korea

Abstract

Ambient measurements were made using two sets of annular denuder system during the four seasons (April 2001 to February 2002) and were then compared with the results during the period of 1996–1997 to estimate the trends and seasonal variations in concentrations of gaseous and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) principal species. Annual averages of gaseous HNO₃ and NH₃ increased by 11% and 6%, respectively, compared with those of the previous study, whereas HONO and SO₂ decreased by 11% and 136%, respectively. The PM_2.5 concentration decreased by ～17%, 35% for SO₄ ^2?, and 29% for NH₄ ⁺, whereas NO₃ ^? increased by 21%. Organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) were 12.8 and 5.98 μg/m^-3, accounting for ～26 and 12% of PM_2.5 concentration, respectively. The species studied accounted for 84% of PM_2.5 concentration, ranging from 76% in winter to 97% in summer.

Potential source contribution function (PSCF) analysis was used to identify possible source areas affecting air pollution levels at a receptor site in Seoul. High possible source areas in concentrations of PM_2.5, NO₃ ^?, SO₄ ^2?, NH₄ ⁺, and K⁺ were coastal cities of Liaoning province (possibly emissions from oil-fired boilers on ocean liners and fishing vessels and industrial emissions), inland areas of Heibei/Shandong provinces (the highest density areas of agricultural production and population) in China, and typical port cities (Mokpo, Yeosu, and Busan) of South Korea. In the PSCF map for OC, high possible source areas were also coastal cities of Liaoning province and inland areas of Heibei/Shandong provinces in China. In contrast, high possible source areas of EC were highlighted in the south of the Yellow Sea, indicating possible emissions from oil-fired boilers on large ships between South Korea and Southeast Asia. In summary, the PSCF results may suggest that air pollution levels in Seoul are affected considerably by long-range transport from external areas, such as the coastal zone in China and other cities in South Korea, as well as Seoul itself.     

Comparison of the Annular Denuder System and the Transition Flow Reactor for Measurements of Selected Dry Deposition Species

An intensive field study was conducted in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina in the fall of 1986. Ambient concentrations of the following constituents were obtained: nitric acid, nitrous acid, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen ion, and particulate nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium. Results collected using the annular denuder system (ADS) and the transition flow reactor (TFR) are presented and compared.

Both types of samplers had operational detection limits on daily (22-hour) samples that were generally below 1 μg m_-3 suggesting that both samplers can provide sensitive measurements for most of the constituents of interest. Both the ADS and TFR show reasonable (>25 percent) within-sampler precision for most of the measured species concentrations, except TFR fine particulate nitrate measurements where results were frequently negative (The TFR fine particulate nitrate measurement is calculated using subtraction of positive numbers).

Comparison of ADS and TFR daily results showed good agreement for total particulate sulfate, the sum of total (coarse plus fine) particulate and gaseous nitrate, and ammonia. As a result of different inlet particle collection efficiencies, the ADS fine particulate sulfate exceeded the TFR (5 percent). In the absence of a filter to collect volatilized particulate ammonium in the ADS, the sum of total particulate and gaseous ammonium in the TFR exceeded that in the ADS. Of potentially more importance, ADS measurements of SO₂ and H⁺ exceeded those of the TFR, while TFR measurements of HNO₃ exceeded those of the ADS. Results of this study suggest that the TFR may provide biased measurements of SO₂, H⁺, HNO₃, and Fine NO₃ ^- that cannot be corrected without modifications to the fundamental design of the sampling system.     

Application of the Tracer-Aerosol Gradient Interpretive Technique to Sulfur Attribution for the Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational Study

Abstract

A simple data analysis method called the Tracer-Aerosol Gradient Interpretive Technique (TAGIT) is used to attribute particulate S and SO₂ at Big Bend National Park in Texas and nearby areas to local and regional sources. Particulate S at Big Bend is of concern because of its effects on atmospheric visibility. The analysis used particulate S, SO₂ , and perfluorocarbon tracer data from six 6-hr sampling sites in and near Big Bend National Park. The data were collected in support of the Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational (BRAVO) Study; the field portion was conducted from July through October 1999. Perfluorocarbon tracer was released continuously from a tower at Eagle Pass, TX, approximately 25 km northeast of two large coal-fired power plants (Carbon I and II) in Coahuila, Mexico, and approximately 270 km east-southeast of Big Bend National Park.

The perfluorocarbon tracer did not properly represent the location of the emissions from the Carbon power plants for individual 6-hr sampling periods and attributed only 3% of the particulate S and 27% of the SO₂ at the 6-hr sites in and near Big Bend to sources represented by the tracer. An alternative approach using SO₂ to tag “local” sources such as the Carbon plants attributed 10% of the particulate S and 75% of the SO2 at the 6-hr sites to local sources. Based on these two approaches, most of the regional (65–86%) and a small fraction (19–31%) of the local SO₂ was converted to particulate S. The analysis implies that substantial reductions in particulate S at Big Bend National Park cannot be achieved by only reducing emissions from the Carbon power plants; reduction of emissions from many sources over a regional area would be necessary.     

Spatial Variation in Acidic Sulfate and Ammonia Concentrations within Metropolitan Philadelphia

Abstract

Acidic sulfate concentrations were measured in metropolitan Philadelphia during the summers of 1992 and 1993, as part of a continuing effort to characterize particle concentrations in urban environments. Sampling was performed simultaneously at eight sites located within and around metropolitan Philadelphia. Sites were selected based on their population density and on their distance and direction from the city center. Air pollution sampling was conducted every other day during the summer of 1992 and every day during the summer of 1993. All samples were collected for 24-h periods beginning at 9 a.m. (EDT). All acidic sulfate and ammonia samples were collected using modified Harvard-EPA Annular Denuder Systems (HEADS).

In this paper, we examine the spatial variation in acidic sulfate and ammonia concentrations within the metropolitan Philadelphia area. We also identify factors that may influence their variation and develop models to predict their concentrations. Outdoor sulfate (SO₄ ^2?) concentrations were uniform within metropolitan Philadelphia; however, aerosol strong acidity (H⁺) concentrations varied spatially. This variation generally was independent of wind direction, but was related to local factors, such as the NH₃ concentration, population density, and distance from the center of the city. Physico-chemical models, which were developed using data collected during the summer of 1992, were excellent predictors of 24-h and mean summertime H⁺ concentrations measured during the summer of 1993. Models accounted for 78% of the variation in 24-h H⁺ levels. Results suggest that a single stationary ambient (SAM) monitor would be sufficient to estimate SO₄ ^2? exposures for populations living in Philadelphia. For H⁺, however, multiple monitoring sites or models should be used to determine the outdoor H+ exposures of populations living in urban environments, although a single SAM site may provide an excellent index of H⁺ variation over time.     

Air quality and health benefits from potential coal power plant closures in Texas

As power production from renewable energy and natural gas grows, closures of some coal-fired power plants in Texas become increasingly likely. In this study, the potential effects of such closures on air quality and human health were analyzed by linking a regional photochemical model with a health impacts assessment tool. The impacts varied significantly across 13 of the state’s largest coal-fired power plants, sometimes by more than an order of magnitude, even after normalizing by generation. While some power plants had negligible impacts on concentrations at important monitors, average impacts up to 0.5 parts per billion (ppb) and 0.2 µg/m³ and maximum impacts up to 3.3 ppb and 0.9 µg/m³ were seen for ozone and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), respectively. Individual power plants impacted average visibility by up to 0.25 deciviews in Class I Areas. Health impacts arose mostly from PM_2.5 and were an order of magnitude higher for plants that lack scrubbers for SO₂. Rankings of health impacts were largely consistent across the base model results and two reduced form models. Carbon dioxide emissions were relatively uniform, ranging from 1.00 to 1.26 short tons/MWh, and can be monetized based on a social cost of carbon. Despite all of these unpaid externalities, estimated direct costs of each power plant exceeded wholesale power prices in 2016.

Implications: While their CO₂ emission rates are fairly similar, sharply different NO_x and SO₂ emission rates and spatial factors cause coal-fired power plants to vary by an order of magnitude in their impacts on ozone, particulate matter, and associated health and visibility outcomes. On a monetized basis, the air pollution health impacts often exceed the value of the electricity generated and are of similar magnitude to climate impacts. This suggests that both air pollution and climate should be considered if externalities are used to inform decision making about power-plant dispatch and retirement.     

Evaluation of the filter pack for long-duration sampling of ambient air

A 14-week filter pack (FP) sampler evaluation field study was conducted at a site near Bondville, IL to investigate the impact of weekly sampling duration. Simultaneous samples were collected using collocated filter packs (FP) from two independent air quality monitoring networks (CASTNet and Acid-MODES) and using duplicate annular denuder systems (ADS). Precision estimates for most of the measured species are similar for weekly ADS and composited FPs. There is generally good agreement between the weekly CASTNet FP results aggregated from weekly daytime and weekly nighttime samples and those aggregated from daily 24 h Acid-MODES samples; although SO₂ is the exception, and CASTNet concentrations are higher than Acid-MODES. Comparison of weekly ADS results with composited weekly FP results from CASTNet shows good agreement for SO^2-₄. With the exception of the two weeks where the FP exceeded the ADS, both HNO₃ and the sum of particulate and gaseous NO^-₃ show good agreement. The FP often provides good estimates of HNO₃, but when used to sample atmospheres that have experienced substantial photochemical reactivity, FP HNO₃ determinations using nylon filters may be biased high. It is suggested that HNO₂ or some other oxidized nitrogen compound can accumulate on a regional scale and may interfere with the FP determination of HNO₃. FP particulate NO^-₃ results are in fair agreement with the ADS. Since FP SO₂ results are biased low by 12–20%, SO₂ concentration in the CASTNet data archive should be adjusted upward. Nylon presents problems as a sampling medium in terms of SO₂ recovery and specificity for HNO₃. Additional comparative sampler evaluation studies are recommended at several sites over each season to permit comprehensive assessment of the concentrations of atmospheric trace constituents archived by CASTNet.     

A Study of Primary Sulfate Emissions From a Coal-Fired Boiler with FGD

A study was carried out to investigate the emissions of SO₂ and primary sulfate materials (H₂SO₄ and inorganic particulate matter) from a boiler burning fossil fuel and using a wet-limestone scrubber for SO₂ removal. Experiments were designed to assess the scrubbing efficiency for SO₂ and sulfate, as well as the potential for scrubber liquor reentrainment. The boiler studied was an 820 MW cyclone-fired unit equipped with a wet, limestone scrubber, consisting of eight two-stage venturi-absorber modules designed to treat a flue gas flow rate of 2,760,000 acfm. The boiler fuel was a low-grade sub-bituminous coal with ash and sulfur contents of 25 and 5%, respectively. Multiple-sampling methods were employed concurrently on the inlet and outlet of a candidate absorber module to measure SO₂, total water-soluble sulfate, and free H₂SO₄. Samples were collected during three field experiments from September 1977 through April 1978. The average SO₂ scrubbing efficiency was 76% and was observed to decrease over the 5 day operation/maintenance cycle of the module. The total water-soluble sulfate input to the scrubber amounted to approximately 1% of the total sulfur oxides and was composed of a 5:1 ratio of H₂SO₄ to particulate sulfate. The total sulfate scrubbing efficiency, averaging about 29%, was invariant with respect to SO₂ removal. The sulfate emissions measured in the scrubber exit gas consisted of about 85 % H₂SO₄ as a fine aerosol. Mass emissions of acid and particulate sulfate were calculated as 1730 Ib/hr and 305 Ib/hr, respectively.     

Study of size distribution of atmospheric aerosol at Agra

Measurements on size distribution of atmospheric aerosol were made at Dayalbagh, Agra during July to September 1998. A 4-stage cascade particle sampler (CPS - 105) which fractionates particles in sizes ranging between 0.7 and >10.9 μm, was used. Samples were collected on Whatman 41 filters. The filters were analyzed for the major water-soluble ions. The anions (F, Cl, NO₃ and SO₄) were analyzed by Dionex DX-500 ion chromatograph while atomic absorption and colorimetric techniques were used for the analysis of cations (Na, K, Ca and Mg) and NH₄, respectively. The average mass of aerosol was found to be 131.6 μg m⁻³ and aerosol composition was found to be influenced by terrigeneous sources. The mass size distribution of total aerosol and the ions NH₄, Cl, NO₃, K, Ca, Mg, SO₄ and Na was bimodal while that of F was unimodal. SO₄, F, K and NH₄ dominated in the fine mode while Ca, Mg, Cl and NO₃ were in abundance in coarse fraction. Na was found in both coarse as well as fine mode. Coarse mode SO₄ and NO₃ have been ascribed to contribution from re-suspension of soil and formation by heterogeneous oxidation on soil derived particles. Preponderance of K in fine mode is attributed to emissions from vegetation and from burning of plant materials. Ca, Mg, Cl and NO₃ are largely soil derived and hence dominate in coarse fraction. Equivalent ratios of NH₄/(SO₄+NO₃) were calculated for both fine and coarse aerosols. The coarse mode ratio varied between 0.7 and 1.4 while in fine mode it ranged between 1.4 and 1.9. It shows that aerosol is basic, the basicity of coarse mode is due to higher concentration of soil-derived alkaline components while the basicity in fine mode is due to neutralization of acidity by NH₃.     

Source Identification of Atlanta Aerosol by Positive Matrix Factorization

Abstract

Data characterizing daily integrated particulate matter (PM) samples collected at the Jefferson Street monitoring site in Atlanta, GA, were analyzed through the application of a bilinear positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. A total of 662 samples and 26 variables were used for fine particle (particles ≤2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter) samples (PM_2.5 ), and 685 samples and 15 variables were used for coarse particle (particles between 2.5 and 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter) samples (PM_10–2.5 ). Measured PM mass concentrations and compositional data were used as independent variables. To obtain the quantitative contributions for each source, the factors were normalized using PMF-apportioned mass concentrations. For fine particle data, eight sources were identified: SO₄ ^2?-rich secondary aerosol (56%), motor vehicle (22%), wood smoke (11%), NO₃ ^?-rich secondary aerosol (7%), mixed source of cement kiln and organic carbon (OC) (2%), airborne soil (1%), metal recycling facility (0.5%), and mixed source of bus station and metal processing (0.3%). The SO₄ ^2?-rich and NO₃ ^?-rich secondary aerosols were associated with NH₄ ⁺. The SO₄ ^2?-rich secondary aerosols also included OC. For the coarse particle data, five sources contributed to the observed mass: airborne soil (60%), NO₃ ^?-rich secondary aerosol (16%), SO₄ ^2?-rich secondary aerosol (12%), cement kiln (11%), and metal recycling facility (1%). Conditional probability functions were computed using surface wind data and identified mass contributions from each source. The results of this analysis agreed well with the locations of known local point sources.     

Fine particulate speciation profile and emission factor of municipal solid waste incinerator established by dilution sampling method

In this study, fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) emitted from a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) was collected using dilution sampling method. Chemical compositions of the collected PM_2.5 samples, including carbon content, metal elements, and water-soluble ions, were analyzed. Traditional in-stack hot sampling was simultaneously conducted to compare the influences of dilution on PM_2.5 emissions and the characteristics of the bonded chemical species. The results, established by a dilution sampling method, show that PM_2.5 and total particulate matter (TPM) emission factors were 61.6 ± 4.52 and 66.1 ± 5.27 g ton-waste^?1, respectively. The average ratio of PM_2.5/TPM is 0.93, indicating that more than 90% of PM emission from the MSWI was fine particulate. The major chemical species in PM_2.5 included organic carbon (OC), Cl^?, NH₄⁺, elemental carbon (EC) and Si, which account for 69.7% of PM_2.5 mass. OC was from the unburned carbon in the exhaust, which adsorbed onto the particulate during the cooling process. High Cl^? emission is primarily attributable to wastes containing plastic bags made of polyvinyl chloride, salt in kitchen refuse and waste biomass, and so on. Minor species that account for 0.01–1% of PM_2.5 mass included SO₄^2-, K⁺, Na, K, NO₃^?, Al, Ca²⁺, Zn, Ca, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Mg. The mean ratio of dilution method/in-stack hot method was 0.454. The contents of water-soluble ions (Cl^?, SO₄^2-, NO₃^?) were significantly enriched in PM_2.5 via gas-to-particle conversion in the dilution process. Results indicate that in-stack hot sampling would underestimate levels of these species in PM_2.5.

Implications: PM_2.5 samples from a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) were collected simultaneously by a dilution sampling technique and a traditional in-stack method. PM_2.5 emission factors and chemical speciation profiles were established. Dilution sampling provides more reliable data than in-stack hot sampling. The results can be applied to estimate the PM_2.5 emission inventories of MSWI, and the source profile can be used for contribution estimate of chemical mass balance modeling.     

Vanadium Contamination of Lichens and Tree Foliage in the Vicinity of Three Oil-Fired Power Plants in Eastern Canada

Abstract

Vanadium concentrations were determined by neutron activation analysis in samples of epiphytic lichens and tree foliage collected at sites along 10 transects in the vicinity of three oil-fired power plants in eastern Canada. The vanadium concentrations in plants decreased exponentially with increasing distance from the power plants. Substantially larger concentrations of vanadium occurred in lichen tissues than in tree foliage. Lichens clearly are more suitable for bio-monitoring environmental contamination with vanadium near oil-fired power plants.