崇明岛地下水资源的利用现状及保护措施

未来地下水资源短缺,特别是由于地面沉降、地表退化、海平面上升等引起的地下水位下降,将对沿海地区的地质环境及人类的生存发展产生极大的影响。通过对崇明地区地下水资源利用现状以及影响地下水位下降的影响因素分析,提出了改善传统的灌溉系统来减少地下水资源的使用、海岸沿线修建人工湖泊防止海水入侵、鼓励农民大面积种植水稻、制定管理措施严格控制地下水的开采总量、进一步加强崇明岛地面沉降动态监测与研究等相应的防范措施。强调控制地下水位的下降,以减轻淡水资源短缺所造成的危害,具有特殊而重要的意义。     

Water resources issues of small island developing states

The water resources of most small island developing states (SIDS) are often very limited and require special consideration to ensure that they are developed and managed in a sustainable manner. Many small islands, typically located in the humid tropics, have no surface water resources and rely on limited groundwater resources in the form of thin freshwater lenses. The exposed location of small islands makes them particularly vulnerable to natural disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts. Pollution from population centres and from agricultural and other activities is an increasing problem. This article provides an overview of the water resources of small islands, and the main problems and issues related to water resources. Some suggested solutions, based on practical experiences, are offered for water resource assessment and monitoring programmes, and water resource development. Water resource policy, planning and management issues are also addressed, and suggested approaches for resolving some of the major water resource problems presented.     

Community‐based water supplies in Cikarang,Indonesia: are they sustainable?

Community‐based water supply (CBWS) is an example of how a community manages common pool resources (CPR). This results in an alternative approach to solve water supply problems in developing countries by enhancing community participation in managing water supply. This research evaluates the sustainability of five CBWS projects in Cikarang, Indonesia by using Ostrom's design principles, with additional sustainability factors found in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) on drinking water and groundwater sustainability. Quinn et al. (2007) criteria were used in the analysis, and the results show that the management of four CBWS institutions were absent and one CBWS institution was weak. With regards to the SDG's drinking water target, the CBWS institutions were unable to comply with safe water standards, and in terms of groundwater sustainability, efforts to monitor and sustain groundwater tables were absent. Results from this research suggest that more focus must be placed on water quality and groundwater sustainability for CBWS projects.     

Operational Indicators for Measuring Agricultural Sustainability in Developing Countries

This paper reviews relevant literature on the sustainability indicators theoretically proposed and practically applied by scholars over the past 15 years. Although progress is being made in the development and critical analysis of sustainability indicators, in many cases existing or proposed indicators are not the most sensitive or useful measures in developing countries. Indicator selection needs to meet the following criteria: relative availability of data representing the indicators, sensitivity to stresses on the system, existence of threshold values and guidelines, predictivity, integratability and known response to disturbances, anthropogenic stresses, and changes over time. Based on these criteria, this paper proposes a set of operational indicators for measuring agricultural sustainability in developing countries. These indicators include ecological indicators involving amounts of fertilizers and pesticides used, irrigation water used, soil nutrient content, depth to the groundwater table, water use efficiency, quality of groundwater for irrigation, and nitrate content of both groundwater and crops. Economic indicators include crop productivity, net farm income, benefit–cost ratio of production, and per capita food grain production. Social indicators encompass food self-sufficiency, equality in food and income distribution among farmers, access to resources and support services, and farmers knowledge and awareness of resource conservation. This article suggests that the selection of indicators representing each aspect of sustainability should be prioritized according to spatial and temporal characteristics under consideration.     

Landowner Motivations for Civic Engagement in Water Resource Protection

Scholars and water resource professionals recognize citizens must get involved in water resource issues to protect water resources. Yet questions persist on how to motivate community members to get and stay civically involved in nonpoint source pollution issues, given that problems are often ill‐defined. To be successful, interventions intended to engage individuals in collective action must be based on an understanding of the determinants of public‐sphere behavior. The purpose of this study is to explore the psycho‐social factors which influence landowner civic engagement in water resource protection. Data were collected using a self‐administered mail survey of landowners in the Cannon River Watershed and analyzed using structural equation modeling. Study findings suggest landowners are more likely to be civically engaged in water resource issues if they feel a personal obligation to take civic action and perceive they have the ability to protect water resources. Landowners who believe water resource protection is a local responsibility, perceive important others expect them to protect water resources, and believe they have the ability to protect water resources are more likely to feel a sense of obligation to take civic action. A combination of strategies including civic engagement programs addressing barriers to landowner engagement will be most effective for promoting civic engagement in water resource protection.     

Developing adaptive capacity within groundwater abstraction management systems

Groundwater is a key resource for global agricultural production but is vulnerable to a changing climate. Given significant uncertainty about future impacts, bottom-up approaches for developing adaptive capacity are a more appropriate paradigm than seeking optimal adaptation strategies that assume a high ability to predict future risks or outcomes. This paper analyses the groundwater management practices adopted at multiple scales in East Anglia, UK, to identify wider lessons for developing adaptive capacity within groundwater management. Key elements are (1) horizontal and vertical integration within resource management; (2) making better use of water resources, at all scales, which vary in space and time; (3) embedding adaptation at multiple scales (from farm to national) within an adaptive management framework which allows strategies and management decisions to be updated in the light of changing understanding or conditions; (4) facilitating the ongoing formation through collective action of local Water Abstractor Groups; (5) promoting efficient use of scarce water resources by these groups, so as to increase their power to negotiate over possible short-term license restrictions; (6) controlling abstractions within a sustainable resource management framework, whether at national (regulatory) or at local (Abstractor Group) scales, that takes account of environmental water needs; and (7) reducing non-climate pressures which have the potential to further reduce the availability of usable groundwater.     

Groundwater resources in India: an arena for diverse competition

There is evidence of a looming groundwater crisis in India. Unlike in the case of surface water, competition around groundwater generally does not result in open conflicts. Measurability and visibility of surface water accord a clearer public perception of water quantities, which leads to conflicts. Groundwater in an aquifer is sourced in a dispersed manner, and boundaries, quantities and interdependencies are less visible or measurable. Hence, groundwater resources go through intense and intricate competition between users and uses before open conflicts begin. Competition occurs with reference to sources rather than around the resource. The interdependency of sources is a function of changing patterns of usage as intricacies of aquifer characteristics come into play. Governance institutions and regulatory frameworks of groundwater need to be sensitive to the various forms in which groundwater competition manifests in different hydrogeological settings, and the consequences of this in terms of access and rights, in relation to issues of equity and justice.     

ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCE POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

This article analyzes the official and non-official responses of Filipinos to the depletion of some renewable natural resources (particularly water quality). Contrary to popular assumption, and contrary to official statements of the Philippine government at international conferences, it appears that environmental depletion is a political issue in the Philippines. The reasons for the salience of resource and environmental issues are discussed. The dilemma of the Philippine government is that it is committed to economic progress, but the resources which make that progress possible are in short supply. Timber, soil and clean water are endangered by deforestation, erosion and pollution. However, conservation and environmental protection are expensive in the short run. The Philippines faces a problem common to developing tropical countries.     

WATER SUPPLY AS A LIMITING FACTOR IN DEVELOPING COMMUNITIES: ENDOGENOUS VS. EXOGENOUS SOURCES1

ABSTRACT: A growing number of developing communities in New Jersey is planning for an ultimate population that would be supplied by endogenous sources of water. At the state and national level, however, reliance on exogenous sources appears to be in favor. Both viewpoints, of course, recognize that water supply is one of the major critical factors in determining the capacity of a land area to support population. Three planning issues that bear on this endogenous-exogenous source controversy are discussed: 1) deep aquifers which have recharge areas in other political jurisdictions and are therefore regulated by other bodies will not count as an endogenous source, reliance will be placed only on shallow water table aquifers which are recharged by local precipitation; 2) total development of the groundwater resources of a headwaters community could result in severe base flow diminishment, thereby supporting the notion that these communities have a regional responsibility to restrict their growth so as to preserve and protect the water supply for downstream users; and 3) yield decrementing estimates, i.e., how much recharge water is lost to runoff as a consequence of development, are needed in order to assess the magnitude of local water resources.     

Water, environment and development

This paper for the most part constitutes the address which was made to the Consortium for International Development at their recent Presidential Symposium at Colorado State University on 30 July 1992. It raises some of the global issues in water resources development and management which are likely to confront the international community in the 1990s and beyond. The issues pose the challenge to institutions involved in the water resources field in both developed and developing countries.     

An integrated approach to modeling resource utilization for rural communities in developing countries

Resource consumption in developing countries has been the focus of a considerable amount of research. What has been understudied however, has been the feedback affects of resource consumption on resource availability to both households and communities. Heavy reliance on natural resources and intensive smallholder agriculture common to many rural communities in developing countries has forced people to fulfill short-term needs to the detriment of long-term ecological and livelihood sustainability. This paper introduces a conceptual framework to examine how individuals and households fulfill daily caloric needs and the aggregate effects on resource availability and consumption. Data were collected from a large number of published case studies of rural land-use dynamics, growth and yield models, and human livelihoods were reviewed from scientific journals, reports published by NGOs, and government reports. Using inputs defined by the user, the model tracks annual fuelwood and agricultural land use based on meeting individual energy demands. A case-study-based analysis was patterned after smallholder agriculturalists at the family and community level. Three scenarios are presented in this paper using data from Uganda to illustrate the application of this model.     

Evaluating the impact of water conservation on fate of outdoor water use: a study in an arid region

In this research, the impact of several water conservation policies and return flow credits on the fate of water used outdoors in an arid region is evaluated using system dynamics modeling approach. Return flow credits is a strategy where flow credits are obtained for treated wastewater returned to a water body, allowing for the withdrawal of additional water equal to the amount returned as treated wastewater. In the return credit strategy, treated wastewater becomes a resource. This strategy creates a conundrum in which conservation may lead to an apparent decrease in water supply because less wastewater is generated and returned to water body. The water system of the arid Las Vegas Valley in Nevada, USA is used as basis for the dynamic model. The model explores various conservation scenarios to attain the daily per capita demand target of 752 l by 2035: (i) status quo situation where conservation is not implemented, (ii) conserving water only on the outdoor side, (iii) conserving water 67% outdoor and 33% indoor, (iv) conserving equal water both in the indoor and outdoor use (v) conserving water only on the indoor side. The model is validated on data from 1993 to 2008 and future simulations are carried out up to 2035. The results show that a substantial portion of the water used outdoor either evapo-transpires (ET) or infiltrates to shallow groundwater (SGW). Sensitivity analysis indicated that seepage to groundwater is more susceptible to ET compared to any other variable. The all outdoor conservation scenario resulted in the highest return flow credits and the least ET and SGW. A major contribution of this paper is in addressing the water management issues that arise when wastewater is considered as a resource and developing appropriate conservation policies in this backdrop. The results obtained can be a guide in developing outdoor water conservation policies in arid regions.     

Groundwater management by watershed agencies: an evaluation of the capacity of Ontario's conservation authorities

Watershed-based resource management organizations around the world are becoming more involved in groundwater management. This reflects, among other considerations, growing awareness of the critical role that these local agencies can and should play in the management of groundwater resources. Ontario's conservation authorities (CAs) are an important example. CAs are taking on new responsibilities for groundwater data collection, monitoring and planning. Unfortunately, not all local organizations are equally capable of participating effectively in groundwater management. This certainly is the case among Ontario's 38 CAs, which have highly variable levels of financial and staff resources. Local capacity for water management can be explored from the perspective of the institutional environment, the watershed community, and the financial, technical and staff resources of the organizations. This paper presents an evaluation of the groundwater management capacity of Ontario's conservation authorities, drawing on two detailed case studies (the Upper Thames River CA and the Ganaraska Region CA), and additional data gathered from all 38 CAs. Institutional issues, such as the clarity of management roles and senior government commitment to local management, as well as resourcing concerns, local working relationships, and public support, largely determine the capacity of CAs to expand their involvement in groundwater management. Strengthening the capacity of watershed-based agencies to participate in groundwater management is an important challenge in all jurisdictions, as these agencies are well placed to reinforce municipal groundwater management by identifying local needs and trends, facilitating communication and cooperation, and promoting best management practices.     

Tackling the issue of rural–urban water transfers in the Ta'iz region, Yemen

The Ta'iz region of Yemen is facing serious water problems. Total water use has become unsustainable. While agriculture places a heavy demand on the region's water resources, supplies for the fast growing city and the industrial sector are severely rationed despite their much higher willingness-to-pay for water relative to the returns on most agricultural uses. The article considers several decentralized management options for enhancing sustainability and improving intersectoral water allocation. These include, taxing groundwater extractions, taxing inputs used in pumping groundwater, and implementing a tradable water rights regime. The first two options could lead to resource conservation but are politically difficult to implement and may not necessarily result in better intersectoral water allocation. The tradable water rights regime has potential for achieving the twin objectives of resource conservation and improved intersectoral resource allocation. If farmers' de facto water rights were legitimized, this option would be more acceptable to them. However, the following additional conditions need to be met for making the option viable: (a) a set-aside allocation is made for lifeline supplies for the poor; ( b) the water law provides for separation of water rights from land rights; and (c) community organizations are involved as co-managers of the region's water resources.     

Joint institutional arrangements for addressing transboundary water resources issues—lessons for the GEF

The lofty goals of the 1992 Earth Summit regarding sustainable development will not be achieved without major improvements in the management of transboundary water resources. This paper describes the serious nature of water-related conflicts and environmental damage associated with degradation of marine ecosystems, coastal zones, and shared surface/groundwater systems. Traditional approaches such as international conventions, watercourse agreements with basin organizations, and arbitration have generally fallen short of their objectives. This article suggests that a middle ground centered on multicountry institutional arrangements for joint fact finding, evaluation, and problem resolution may be a more productive approach over the short term to achieve sustainable development. The experience of the International Joint Commission (Canada and U.S.) is described as a way of providing a neutral ground for building trust among nations, for 'leveling the playing field' among small and large countries, and for providing mechanisms for countries to work jointly toward sustainable development of their shared resources without relinquishing their sovereignty. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is playing a catalytic role in assisting countries to address transboundary water resources issues. The paper describes GEF's Operational Strategy and discusses the implications of joint institutional arrangements for the international waters focal area. Given that the environmental security of many nations rests on improved transboundary cooperation, the GEF provides a pragmatic opportunity for countries to cooperatively address these pressing problems.     

Environmental and resource sustainability of Chinese cities: A review of issues,policies, practices and effects

This paper synthesizes the English literature on current issues, policies and practices, and their effects on environmental and resource sustainability in China's ongoing urbanization. Aspects of urban sustainability reviewed include air, water, solid waste, energy efficiency, transportation and land use. It shows that Chinese cities have been and probably will continue to be struggling with issues such as air pollution, scarcity of clean water, solid waste and greenhouse gas emissions. But there are many opportunities for improvement. It suggests shortages of existing policies and major gaps in knowledge and practice, which can be helpful to policy makers, planners and researchers in China and other developing countries.     

Application of a Physical Input–Output Table to Evaluate the Development and Sustainability of Continental Water Resources in Spain

Continental waters are complex resources in terms of a measurable physical quantity, and measuring them requires a good knowledge of total water availability. In this research, an accounting physical input–output table (PIOT) was applied to evaluate total water resources and gross annual availabilities at each stage of the natural-artificial water cycle. These stages are considered subsystems of a continental water resource system describing water transfers for an average year within 13 administrative basins of Spain. Water transfers between various subsystems are characterized by internal flows decreasing the water resource availabilities. The PIOT analysis establishes these internal flows, and the origins and final uses of the total resources for each subsystem. The input-output balance registered an unsustainable negative net accumulation in eight water basins. The PIOT analysis also allowed the calculation of significant indicators such as water resource developments (RDI) and their sustainable use (SUI). RDI and SUI demonstrate that groundwater is a critical resource affecting the environment (e.g., wetlands in the upper Guadiana) and the water supply (e.g., irrigation in the Segura basin). The results of this model suggest that above-/below-ground hydrological links are important when decisions have to be made in order to provide a satisfactory supply of water in Spain. The model integrates the different water basins under territorial criteria, and therefore it may be useful for the Spanish National Hydrological Plan.     

Groundwater-level trends and implications for sustainable water use in the Kabul Basin, Afghanistan

The Kabul Basin, which includes the city of Kabul, Afghanistan, with a population of approximately 4 million, has several Afghan, United States, and international military installations that depend on groundwater resources for a potable water supply. This study examined groundwater levels in the Kabul Basin from 2004 to 2012. Groundwater levels have increased slightly in rural areas of the Kabul Basin as a result of normal precipitation after the drought of the early 2000s. However, groundwater levels have decreased in the city of Kabul due to increasing water use in an area with limited recharge. The rate of groundwater-level decrease in the city is greater for the 2008–2012 period (1.5 meters per year (m/yr) on average) than for the 2004–2008 period (0–0.7 m/yr on average). The analysis, which is corroborated by groundwater-flow modeling and a non-governmental organization decision-support model, identified groundwater-level decreases and associated implications for groundwater sustainability in the city of Kabul. Military installations in the city of Kabul (the Central Kabul subbasin) are likely to face water management challenges resulting from long-term groundwater sustainability concerns, such as the potential drying of shallow water-supply wells. Installations in the northern part of the Kabul Basin may have fewer issues with long-term water sustainability. Groundwater-level monitoring and groundwater-flow simulation can be valuable tools for assessing groundwater management options to improve the sustainability of water resources in the Kabul Basin.     

Review of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) in coastal zones of the Southeast and Gulf Coast regions of the United States with management implications

Groundwater serves as the primary drinking water source for over half of the coastal populations of the Southeast and Gulf Coast regions, two of the fastest growing regions in the United States. Increased demand for this resource has exceeded sustainable yields in many areas and induced saltwater intrusion of coastal aquifers. A process associated with coastal groundwater, submarine groundwater discharge (SGD), has been documented as a source of subsurface fluids to coastal ocean environments throughout the Southeast and Gulf Coast regions and is potentially a significant contributor to nearshore water and geochemical budgets (i.e., nutrients, carbon, trace metals) in many coastal regions. The importance of groundwater as a drinking water source for coastal populations and the influences of submarine groundwater discharge to the coastal ocean warrant increased research and management of this resource. This paper highlights findings from recent SGD studies on three hydrogeologically different continental margins (Onslow Bay, NC, southern Florida, and the Louisiana margin), provides background on the common methods of assessing SGD, and suggests a regional management plan for coastal groundwater resources. Suggested strategies call for assessments of SGD in areas of potentially significant discharge, development of new monitoring networks, and the incorporation of a regional coastal groundwater resources council.     

Identifying crop vulnerability to groundwater abstraction: modelling and expert knowledge in a GIS

Water use is expected to increase and climate change scenarios indicate the need for more frequent water abstraction. Abstracting groundwater may have a detrimental effect on soil moisture availability for crop growth and yields. This work presents an elegant and robust method for identifying zones of crop vulnerability to abstraction. Archive groundwater level datasets were used to generate a composite groundwater surface that was subtracted from a digital terrain model. The result was the depth from surface to groundwater and identified areas underlain by shallow groundwater. Knowledge from an expert agronomist was used to define classes of risk in terms of their depth below ground level. Combining information on the permeability of geological drift types further refined the assessment of the risk of crop growth vulnerability. The nature of the mapped output is one that is easy to communicate to the intended farming audience because of the general familiarity of mapped information. Such Geographic Information System (GIS)-based products can play a significant role in the characterisation of catchments under the EU Water Framework Directive especially in the process of public liaison that is fundamental to the setting of priorities for management change. The creation of a baseline allows the impact of future increased water abstraction rates to be modelled and the vulnerability maps are in a format that can be readily understood by the various stakeholders. This methodology can readily be extended to encompass additional data layers and for a range of groundwater vulnerability issues including water resources, ecological impacts, nitrate and phosphorus.