Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Land-Use Managers' Attitudes Toward Environmental Justice

This study examines the outcome of efforts to educate federal land-use managers about their roles in implementing the Executive Order in their respective districts. The managers participated in a 6-h Nominal Group Technique (NGT) workshop where they were instructed to weight environmental justice issues versus others associated with hazardous waste problems in their districts. Participant responses were quantified and analyzed through a series of rounds. After each round, participants received increasing amounts of information on environmental justice issues. It was hypothesized that the managers would come to a consensus that environmental justice is an important issue that should be seriously addressed. Prior to administering the NGT, the managers appeared to have limited knowledge of environmental justice issues and thus assigned relatively low rankings to such concerns. After being “educated” by viewing films on environmental justice and reading related literature, in general, managers' weightings decreased and a narrower consensus developed. The authors conclude that exposure to the issue may not be as effective as expected in convincing land-use managers to become sensitive to justice issues so that they may effectively implement the Executive Order.     

Proactive environmental programs: Defining customers and measuring their expectations at apple computer

Resources to develop proactive environmental programs compete directly with resources dedicated to the fundamental business of the company. Therefore, environmental managers need to prioritize environmental programs using the same criteria as the company as a whole; for many companies, this means measuring how well such programs meet and exceed customer expectations. We must define our customers, measure their expectations, analyze the results, develop programs in response, and finally measure the results of the program implementation. Although Apple has not completed this cycle, our customer definition and measurement systems are taking shape. This article explains how we define our customers, and how we measure their expectations through direct and indirect data collection mechanisms. It also outlines measurement results and our evolving program focus in response to those results.     

Corporate waste accounting at PSE&G: Bringing a companywide system on-line

Waste accounting has become a necessary practice for companies endeavoring to track their wastes toward realizing discrete waste minimization and pollution prevention objectives. Measurement systems and program initiatives certainly must be tested to find out what will repeatedly work for and best serve a company. Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) has committed to revolutionizing the processes of managing materials, wastes, and their associated information. In laying out their strategic plan, company representatives specified the need for a companywide waste accounting system to enable them to monitor progress toward achieving two important short-term waste management targets by the close of 1995. Together with the Electric Power Research Institute, PSE&G is implementing a four-year program to install such a system. The results of the first year-and-a-half's work are reported in this article. The purpose of this article is to discuss the results of implementing a waste accounting system on a utility companywide basis. We will address the experience of bringing such a system on-line at PSE&G. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) previously developed a framework and approach for measuring the performance of utility pollution prevention programs called waste accounting, including the development of a software program called Accounting Software Application for Pollution Prevention or ASAPP.¹ These programs were devised to assimilate detailed information from the facility up through the corporate levels.     

A disclosure of social and environmental results/economy resulting from the implementation of reverse logistics and final disposal of the post‐consumption product: The case of computer peripherals industry

This research was conducted with the objective of determining and evidencing the social and environmental/economic results from the implementation of a reverse logistics program providing for the recycling, reuse, and, when necessary, final, environmentally correct disposal of post‐consumption products and product wastes by a multinational manufacturer of computer peripherals with an operation based in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. The reverse logistics process (logisticareversa, or, in this paper, LR) was intended to meet the objectives and principles of the regulatory framework defined in the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS) in Brazil. A single case study was carried out. The results showed that after the adoption of the solid waste management policy, the study company no longer disposed of 1,413,552 kilograms (kg) of materials classified as mixed iron, polystyrene, cardboard, toner powder, and plastic in landfills. The LR process made a profit in two companies: the company surveyed made, in Brazilian reais (R), R$ 9,188,185.51, and the company contracted to carry out the process made, R$ 411,325.97. This latter profit is called by us the “social profit.” The measurement of the environmental/economic, social, and financial results by internalizing the expenses of the LR program into the costs of production shows that reuse and recycling better meets the needs of society and the company than landfilling these post‐consumption materials. Furthermore, the use of cost accounting allows the verification of other goals not indicated in the current model, such as the generation of employment, income, mitigation of environmental problems, and the profit earned by the company contracted to implement the LR process. We also conclude that cost accounting makes it possible to obtain necessary information for decision makers, who are seeking to neutralize environmental impacts and promote sustainable development, thus harmonizing the economic, social, and environmental aspects, to understand the impacts of the LR process.     

Integrating Environmental Restoration and Ecological Restoration: Long-Term Stewardship at the Department of Energy

With the ending of the Cold War, several federal agencies are reclaiming land through remediation and restoration and are considering potential future land uses that are compatible with current uses and local needs. Some sites are sufficiently contaminated that it is likely that the responsible federal agency will retain control over the land for the foreseeable future, providing them with a stewardship mission. This is particularly true of some of the larger Department of Energy (DOE) facilities contaminated during the production of nuclear weapons. The use of the term “restoration” is explored in this paper because the word means different things to the public, ecologists, and environmental managers responsible for contaminated sites, such as Superfund sites and the DOE facilities. While environmental restoration usually refers to remediation and removal of hazardous wastes, ecological restoration refers to the broader process of repairing damaged ecosystems and enhancing their productivity and/or biodiversity. The goals of the two types of restoration can be melded by considering environmental restoration as a special case of ecological restoration, one that involves risk reduction from hazardous wastes, and by broadening environmental restoration to include a more extensive problem-formulation phase (both temporal and spatial), which includes the goal of reestablishing a functioning ecosystem after remediation. Further, evaluating options for the desired post remediation result will inform managers and policy-makers concerning the feasibility and efficacy of environmental restoration itself.     

Conflicting energy and environmental policies: The portsmouth oil refinery

This case study presents the series of decision-making processes surrounding a current environmental issue—the Portsmouth oil refinery in Virginia. Crude oil must be refined before it can be used as fuel. Additionally, some oil must be desulfurized for use other than as gasoline. In 1977, the nation imported about one million barrels of oil a day. Although the US Department of Energy has emphasized the critical need for greater east coast refinery capability, the east coast is to supply only 25% of its refined oil needs. In the same year, the east coast met its demands for petroleum products from three sources: (a) refinery production, 22.7%, (b) product imports, 28.0%, and (c) products from the Gulf Coast, 49.3%.¹ The energy program after the Arab oil embargo has an objective of encouraging the construction of oil refineries and petrochemical plants in the United States rather than abroad. The tariff is higher on imports of refined oil products than of crude oil, and new refineries are allowed to import a large proportion of their requirements tarifffree.The US federal government does not directly regulate the locations for oil refineries or methods of desulfurization. The oil import program, however, does influence decisions concerning location of desulfurization facilities and refineries, and air and water pollution standards affect methods of refining, besides making desulfurization necessary.The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of Defense.     

The benefits of proactive environmental quality: Tips from a successful small business

Who says environmental quality has to cost a bundle? Or that it's out of reach of the typical smaller company? In fact, says this article, a proactive environmental quality program offers significant cost-avoidance opportunities and can allow a company to reap positive public relations rewards. The combination of a total quality production program and a proactive environmental quality program is a formidable force for success. And you don't have to be a big company to be an environmental leader.© 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Implications of environmental program planning for siting a nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain,Nevada, USA

The US Department of Energy (DOE) plans to conduct site characterization studies at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, to determine if the location is a suitable site for a nuclear waste repository. In lieu of traditional environmental review in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, the DOE is relying on an environmental assessment (EA) mandated by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 as the cornerstone of its environmental program for the Yucca Mountain Project. Because of statutory restrictions, the EA is not based on comprehensive baseline information. Neither does it address fundamentals of environmental analysis such as ecological integrity and assessment of cumulative impacts. Consequently, the present environmental program for Yucca Mountain reflects decisions made without complete information and integrated environmental review. The shortcomings of the program risk compromising the natural integrity of Yucca Mountain and invalidating future assessment of the ability of a nuclear waste repository located at the site to protect the environment. Significant improvements are needed in the repository siting program before it can serve as a model of how society can evaluate the long-term environmental consequences of advanced technologies, as has been suggested.     

Implementing industrial ecology and design for environment practices: Lawrence livermore national laboratory

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), one of the nation's three national security laboratories, is initiating a major research effort in industrial ecology with the goal of increasing the economic and environmental efficiency of the U.S. and global economies. Closer to home, ongoing efforts to reduce LLNL's environmental impact on the surrounding community provide an example of how the environmental efficiency of a major research facility can be systematically improved. In the late 1980s, LLNL initiated its waste minimization and pollution prevention program, changing its focus from end-of-pipe waste management to a proactive and preventive strategy—total quality environmental management (TQEM). LLNL's success in integrating pollution prevention with R&D and operational activities is well illustrated by the waste reduction and energy and water conservation accomplishments described in this article. LLNL represents a model of how industrial ecology, design for environment, and pollution prevention can be incorporated into a comprehensive R&D and operational program. This article describes LLNL's developing industrial ecology program, gives some specific technical accomplishments that have application to many industrial facilities, and presents a case study of TQEM at LLNL's remote experimental test facility, Site 300. The integration of TQEM philosophy with LLNL's scientific capabilities holds much promise for new ideas and creative solutions to national and international industrial ecology concerns.     

EFFICIENCY PROBLEMS FROM USER FEES IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT1

ABSTRACT: The Environmental Protection Agency administers a construction grant program to encourage abatement of wastewater pollution by sharing with municipalities the costs of wastewater treatment facilities. The enabling legislation (P.L. 92–500) specifies that EPA's cost share will be 75% of construction costs. It further requires municipalities to collect user fees from industrial users of the facilities to repay that part of the federal grant allocable to the treatment of industrial wastewater. The municipality must return half of the user fees collected to the U.S. Treasury; the municipality is allowed to retain the remaining half. Retention by municipalities of these user fees lowers their effective cost shares and results in the following consequences: (1) a bias for municipalities to select certain kinds of abatement techniques regardless of whether or not they are the least-cost techniques from the national perspective; (2) a bias for municipalities to select larger-than-optimal scales of abatement facilities; (3) a hidden federal subsidy to industry; and (4) grants that favor industrial communities. This article examines the legislative and regulatory requirements for user charges, derives the algebraic expressions for calculating the real federal, municipal, and industrial cost shares with user fees; computes municipal cost shares for selected values of the determinant factors; evaluates efficiency and other consequences of current user fee arrangements; and concludes that the efficiency distortions brought about by the impacts of user fees on cost sharing could be eliminated by requiring that all user fees collected from industry against the federal cost share be returned to the U.S. Treasury.     

论公司的环境责任

现代公司在以营利最大化为目标的前提下,必须承担一定的环境责任。公司承担环境责任与其营利性从长期看是互相促进的,但从短期看可能是相互冲突的。从公司的经济力量、公司作为社会之一员、环境问题的严重性、社区居民环境利益分析,承担环境责任是现代公司不可回避的义务。我国应建立健全公司承担环境责任的机制,强化公司的环境责任。     

Medical waste management in Korea

The management of medical waste is of great importance due to its potential environmental hazards and public health risks. In the past medical waste was often mixed with municipal solid waste and disposed of in residential waste landfills or improper treatment facilities (e.g. inadequately controlled incinerators) in Korea. In recent years, many efforts have been made by environmental regulatory agencies and waste generators to better manage the waste from healthcare facilities. This paper presents an overview of the current management practices of medical waste in Korea. Information regarding generation, composition, segregation, transportation, and disposal of medical wastes is provided and discussed. Medical waste incineration is identified as the most preferred disposal method and will be the only available treatment option in late 2005. Faced with increased regulations over toxic air emissions (e.g. dioxins and furans), all existing small incineration facilities that do not have air pollution control devices will cease operation in the next few years. Large-scale medical waste incinerators would be responsible for the treatment of medical waste generated by most healthcare facilities in Korea. It is important to point out that there is a great potential to emit air toxic pollutants from such incinerators if improperly operated and managed, because medical waste typically contains a variety of plastic materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Waste minimization and recycling, control of toxic air emissions at medical waste incinerators, and alternative treatment methods to incineration are regarded to be the major challenges in the future.     

Patagonia struggles to reduce its impact on the environment

Patagonia designs and distributes clothing for active use in the outdoors, and many of the people who work for Patagonia are avid climbers, skiers, surfers, and hikers. If the environment is destroyed, there will be no place for Patagonia's customers and employees to use its products. The types of products Patagonia makes and the personal commitment to the environment of its founder and employees make it unique. In the past few years, Patagonia has been systematically reviewing how the company's products and operations affect the environment. This article shows that even with Patagonia's unusual connection to the environment, the company is still finding that total quality environmental management is not easy. It takes analysis, planning, follow-through, and measurement; and even then, not all environmental efforts are successful.     

Environmental performance benchmarking for electric utilities

Electric utility companies in the United States and Canada are participating in a unique environmental benchmarking program (EBP) designed to comparatively assess environmental performance. Each company annually provides data on emissionslwastes, compliance, and other environmental aspects to an independent consultant, Research Triangle Institute (RTI), whose staff compiles the data and computes approximately 80 discrete environmental performance metrics for each company. RTI provides a confidential report for each participant presenting the results of the assessment. In addition, RTI conducts a follow-up assessment to determine “best-practices” of each of the top performers for each metric. The EBP provides each participant with useful information on its strengths and weaknesses relative to the other companies in the program as well as ideas on how to improve its environmental performance. Annual participation in the program allows a company to measure improvement in performance on an annual basis. This article summarizes the evolution of the EBP and describes the study methods and reporting approach. Our goal in sharing this information is to demonstrate the usefulness of the program and encourage further participation by all major North American electric utilities.     

Environmental performance indicators for enhancing environmental management

Traditionally, environmental issues and concerns have been viewed as a constraint to businesses. This has resulted in environmental managers relying heavily on a reactive, compliance-based approach to justify change. Businesses are now recognizing that efficient management in the environmental arena can benefit the entire company and open new opportunities for increased profits. Managers have acknowledged that environmental issues can be integrated into daily business trends and activities. Not only does sound environmental management decrease liability, but also in current markets a “green” image can attract investors and customers. This article shows how one tool that progressive companies are focusing attention on—environmental performance indicators—is being used to convey the current status of environmental issues and improve the management of these issues for the benefit of the company as well as the environment.     

Environmental management in an international consumer goods company

Many management processes and tools can provide companies with information to support their environmental decision making. Risk assessment, environmental auditing, life cycle assessment and environmental reporting are but a few examples. Each of these has typically evolved independently as the need for it has arisen. Today, however, this abundance of tools can lead to confusion: What is the exact objective of each tool? How do they differ? Are some ‘better’ than others? Should they be used in parallel, sequentially or in place of each other? More importantly, how do they fit together into a coherent environmental management framework that will ensure sound environmental and economic decision making in a company? This paper seeks to answer these questions. It describes the overall environmental framework that has been developed internally within Procter & Gamble and which allows the company to make coherent economically and environmentally sound decisions, in both the short- and long-term.     

Strategic environmental assessment as a tool of environmental governance: Scotland's extension of the European Union SEA Directive

The coverage of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) has been extended to all public sector policies, plans and programmes subject to Scottish jurisdiction. Evaluation of the arguments advanced by the Scottish Executive for using environmental assessment as a tool for environmental governance requires an exploration of some of the contested interpretations of the function of environmental assessment at a strategic level. The paper examines the implications of this extension of the European Union SEA Directive in the context of current arrangements to fit environmental assessment into the UK tradition of integrated policy appraisal. It considers the methodological implications of using SEA explicitly for improving public sector decision making at all levels and across all activities. This enables environmental effects to be taken into account at an early stage in the formulation of government policy, through a transparent system of assessment which encourages public participation.     

Can David and Goliath Get Along? Federal Land in Local Places

It is often unclear what the role of a local jurisdiction is with regard to land use management on nearby federal properties. Yet federal lands clearly impact nearby local communities. The US Department of Energy (DOE), with over 100 sites across the United States with varying degrees of environmental contamination, may be in a very difficult position with regard to relationships with local government about land use. Yet few, if any, studies have examined DOE land use issues. This study asks: (1) In general, how do local planners feel about federal government relationships with them? (2) Do local planners feel differently about the DOE than they do about other federal agencies? (3) What reasons explain any differences observed in answer to the second question? To answer these questions, local planners were interviewed from communities adjacent to non-DOE federal properties, and their responses compared to those of planners located near DOE facilities in the same regions. Findings showed that compared to other federal agencies that own land in the same regions, the DOE is relatively poorer at actively involving local officials in land use decisions at its sites. Primary reasons are the historic legacy of a culture of secrecy, focus on mission, and especially the lack of experience, training, or mandates in local planning cooperation. Findings also suggest that this attitude is markedly stronger in areas west of the Rocky Mountains. Recommendations for improved federal–local communications include the development of a vision for local government involvement that is supported by top levels of management and filtered effectively to the site level.     

COMPREHENSIVE FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT1

Flooding and the susceptibility to flood damage inherent in all land uses constitute the flood hazard. Resolution of the hazard while properly recognizing flood plain environmental attributes within the context of overall community or area needs is the essence of comprehensive flood plain management. The traditional approach–flood control–has effected modification of only the flooding component of the hazard whether it be coastal or inland. Until recently Federal programs have overlooked the possibilities of modifying the susceptibility component, for which the major responsibility lies with non-Federal interests. Beginning with actions in the TVA area, the latter is now being strongly encouraged through Federal programs and actions notably the Flood Plain Management Services and Survey Programs of the Corps of Engineers, those stemming from Executive Order 11296, and those required for eligibility under the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. Flood plain management objectives must be stated in planning, e.g., economic efficiency, reduction in threat to life and health, environmental improvement, and regional development, to permit proper evaluation of the optional means and approaches for achieving them.