生态服务贸易及其测度方法初探

随着区域间经济联系日益密切，生态服务的市场交换行为伴随着货物贸易快速增加，已成为生态服务贸易的主要形式。市场型生态服务贸易导致生态服务使用在区域间的巨大不公平，已对区域可持续发展产生了重大影响。从隐含自然资源产品提供、隐含能源提供和污染物净化三个方面设计了生态服务贸易的测度框架，并构建了生态不对等交换指数评价生态服务交换的不对等程度。     

生态产品价值实现的理论研究与实践进展

生态产品价值实现是推动“绿水青山”向“金山银山”转化的关键路径，近年来成为研究习近平生态文明思想的热点领域。本文就生态产品价值的内涵理解、实现机理、主要路径及具体实践模式，梳理了近年来国内学者的研究成果，并在此基础上总结与分析，指出存在的问题、提出相关建议。对生态产品价值的理解，目前国内学者从早期的分歧已逐步形成统一的认识，即生态产品本质上是人类从自然生态系统中直接或间接获取的物质和服务的总称，其价值来自生态系统服务价值。生态产品价值实现则是其存在价值通过各种路径被人类消费或使用，最终转化为经济收益或是民生福祉的过程。生态产品价值实现的基本路径主要包括产业发展、市场交易、金融扶持、政府调控和社会参与5种方式，国内目前的实践案例则可以归类为15种模式。但各地在实践过程中也面临生态产品识别边界不清晰、生态产品价值实现机理认识不统一、配套机制不完善以及路径模式创新与实践不够等问题，后续应加快建立生态产品调查统计与评估核算方法体系、完善自然资源产权制度、加强实践模式创新与推广应用。     

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH1

ABSTRACT: We review published analyses of the effects of climate change on goods and services provided by freshwater ecosystems in the United States. Climate-induced changes must be assessed in the context of massive anthropogenic changes in water quantity and quality resulting from altered patterns of land use, water withdrawal, and species invasions; these may dwarf or exacerbate climate-induced changes. Water to meet instream needs is competing with other uses of water, and that competition is likely to be increased by climate change. We review recent predictions of the impacts of climate change on aquatic ecosystems in eight regions of North America. Impacts include warmer temperatures that alter lake mixing regimes and availability of fish habitat; changed magnitude and seasonality of runoff regimes that alter nutrient loading and limit habitat availability at low flow; and loss of prairie pothole wetlands that reduces waterfowl populations. Many of the predicted changes in aquatic ecosystems are a consequence of climatic effects on terrestrial ecosystems; shifts in riparian vegetation and hydrology are particularly critical. We review models that could be used to explore potential effects of climate change on freshwater ecosystems; these include models of instream flow, bioenergetics models, nutrient spiraling models, and models relating riverine food webs to hydrologic regime. We discuss potential ecological risks, benefits, and costs of climate change and identify information needs and model improvements that are required to improve our ability to predict and identify climate change impacts and to evaluate management options.     

Environmental regulatory measures and their economic impact on the Indian leather industry

The leather industry plays a significant role as a foreign exchange earning sector in India. Because of easy availability of raw materials and cheap traditional labour in the country, leather and its products produced in India are priced very affordably. Emerging environmental issues at the local and international levels may have an impact on the economic sustainability of the industry, however. These issues could substantially affect the price of leather and its products in domestic and global markets, and could also result in a reduction in India's ambitious export targets. The linkages between environment and trade are discussed in this article. An attempt has been made to assess the economic impact of major environmental issues on the Indian leather industry .     

Environmental Impacts of the Use of Ecosystem Services: Case Study of Birdwatching

The main reason for promoting the concept of ecosystem services lies in its potential to contribute to environmental conservation. Highlighting the benefits derived from ecosystems fosters an understanding of humans’ dependence on nature, as users of ecosystem services. However, the act of using ecosystem services may not be environmentally neutral. As with the use of products and services generated within an economy, the use of ecosystem services may lead to unintended environmental consequences throughout the ‘ecosystem services supply chain.’ This article puts forward a framework for analyzing environmental impacts related to the use of ecosystem services, indicating five categories of impact: (1) direct impacts (directly limiting the service’s future availability); and four categories of indirect impacts, i.e., on broader ecosystem structures and processes, which can ultimately also affect the initial service: (2) impacts related to managing ecosystems to maximize the delivery of selected services (affecting ecosystems’ capacity to provide other services); (3) impacts associated with accessing ecosystems to use their services (affecting other ecosystem components); (4) additional consumption of products, infrastructure or services required to use a selected ecosystem service, and their life-cycle environmental impacts; and (5) broader impacts on the society as a whole (environmental awareness of ecosystem service users and other stakeholders). To test the usefulness of this framework, the article uses the case study of birdwatching, which demonstrates all of the above categories of impacts. The article justifies the need for a broader consideration of environmental impacts related to the use of ecosystem services.     

碳中和背景下欧盟碳边境调节机制对我国的影响及对策分析

在全球碳中和的新形势下,欧盟委员会于2021年7月正式提出"碳边境调节机制"(CBAM)立法提案,并计划于2023年起实施。本文在总结立法提案关键要素的基础上,着重分析欧盟CBAM的合法性与合理性,研判可能对我国产生的潜在影响,并从国际国内层面提出对策建议。分析发现,欧盟采取"名义"碳市场的形式,初期将覆盖水泥、电力、化肥、钢铁和铝等5个行业,只核算产品生产过程的直接排放,暂不考虑间接排放,2023—2025年是过渡期,2026年开始正式实施。欧盟CBAM的合法性与合理性面临诸多挑战:不符合世界贸易组织国民待遇原则和最惠国待遇原则,但存在满足关税与贸易总协定例外条款的可能性;违反国际气候治理的共同但有区别的责任原则、公平原则和各自能力原则,也不符合公约关于国际贸易歧视或变相限制的条款;对解决碳泄漏问题和保护本土竞争力的作用有限;产品隐含碳核算和碳价确定是技术难点问题。影响评估发现,欧盟CBAM将使我国受影响部门的对欧出口总额降低11%~13%,出口成本增加1亿~3.05亿美元,其中约四分之三的成本将由钢铁行业承担,对贸易隐含碳的下降作用有待进一步考量;此外,欧盟CBAM将会影响多边国际气候谈判进程,也会对我国经济社会发展、国际贸易、产业转型、技术提升等方面产生间接影响。我国应在国际层面坚定在气候治理多边框架下解决碳泄露问题,探索提出中国方案;积极推进贸易自由化,提升我国贸易优势;加强中欧对话协商,避免CBAM成为中欧"绿色贸易壁垒"。在国内层面稳步加快全国碳排放权交易体系建设,夯实碳排放核算基础能力,加强科学研究与交流合作。     

我国稀土进出口量与价格关联度状况分析

稀土是我国五大优势矿产资源之一,在我国国民经济建设中具有重要的战略意义.近年来,我国稀土矿产品进出口贸易逐年增长,而进出口价格却呈现较大幅度的波动趋势.从对我国稀土进出口总量、进出口价格走势的分析入手,利用灰色关联度模型评估稀土出口总量分别对出口价格、进口价格、进口总量的相关程度,提出了我国稀土贸易的相关建议.     

The value of open ocean ecosystems: A case study for the Spanish exclusive economic zone

Valuing goods and services from open oceans provides arguments for the ocean's protection and plays an increasingly important role in debates on the use and management of natural resources. This paper identifies and estimates the monetary value of some of the most important goods and services provided by open oceans. The list of goods and services considered includes food production, raw materials, water supply, CO₂ regulation, bioremediation of waste, biomass and biodiversity conservation. Therefore, not only values associated with productive uses are quantified but also values assigned to other biological ecosystem services. This paper constitutes a first attempt in the open ocean literature at evaluating services such as water supply, biomass and biodiversity conservation. To obtain their monetary value, different techniques, some not applied before in this area, have been used depending on the ecosystem service to be evaluated. As a general criterion we use the concept of net value added (revenues obtained from the services less incurred costs). Our methodology is illustrated by estimating the monetary values of goods and services provided by the open ocean ecosystem of Spain as defined by its exclusive economic zone. The total economic value obtained measures the contribution of oceans to overall welfare and it may be an important instrument in managing open ocean ecosystems and developing environmental policies in the future.     

贸易对环境影响的初步研究

根据环境经济系统的双层结构建立了贸易对环境影响的概念模型 ,即贸易通过环境类、经济类物品和服务的输入输出 ,对环境子系统直接或通过经济子系统间接产生影响 ;对影响环境的贸易 (外部因素 )与环境成本内部化(内部因素 )问题 ,分别进行了分析 ;就贸易对环境影响的研究方法问题 ,运用局域均衡模型 ,为局域贸易环境问题的量化分析提供较为便捷、可靠的模式进行了初步探讨。     

推动我国消费绿色转型的路径研究——基于多重外部影响因素视角

绿色消费是我国推动经济高质量发展,实现绿色发展和2030年可持续发展目标的关键领域之一。目前我国绿色消费意愿正不断上升,绿色产业迅速兴起;从市场机制来看,绿色消费通过供求关系变化影响经济绿色发展。特别是在建设绿色“一带一路”的进程中,以更大力度在更广范围推动绿色消费正当其时。分析发现,影响绿色消费的因素主要包括消费观念,以绿色标准和认证制度、政府绿色采购制度、税收和绿色激励机制为代表的公共政策以及绿色供给产品和服务的质量等。当前中国消费者的绿色消费观念和意识仍旧淡薄,公共政策制定仍不完善,在引导绿色消费方面的作用仍旧较弱,同时还存在绿色产品供应不足、绿色技术创新不足等方面的问题,影响了绿色消费理念向实际绿色消费行为的转化。对此政府可以通过完善绿色采购制度、推动出台绿色采购法、扩大绿色消费品的财政补贴范围、扩大开放等方式推动我国消费向绿色转型。     

Aquacultural development in tropical Asia

Differences between inland and coastal aquacultural production systems in Asia are discussed in terms of market orientation, resource allocation and property rights, and scale of operations. The production of shrimp grown in coastal brackish water ponds has featured prominently in aquacultural development programmes in Asia. Emphasis placed on capital-intensive shrimp production for export, however, has distracted attention from the potential of inland freshwater aquaculture to generate employment opportunities for rural people and food production for domestic consumers. The paper concludes with a discussion of an alternative policy direction for promoting aquacultural development on a socially sound basis, recognizing the need to balance equity and human nutrition with profitability and foreign exchange earnings.     

Environmental accounting as a management tool in the Mediterranean context: the Spanish economy during the last 20 years

Although human presence is one of the main characteristics of the Mediterranean identity since ancient times, a false dialectic between conservation and social-economic development has emerged in recent decades. On the one hand, an economic growth policy is taken as the paradigm of social-economic development; on the other hand, there is a multi-scale conservation policy, in which natural protected areas, as patches of preserved nature, are used as one of the main tools to deal with the challenge of sustainability. The Mediterranean Basin is the habitat of many unique species and one of the 25 main biodiversity hotspots in the world, and as a consequence a strong conservation policy has been used to protect environmental values. At the same time, Mediterranean countries are deeply involved in promoting strong economic growth policies, which are not always compatible with environmental ones. In this paper, Spain has been studied as one model of this situation. Due to political reasons, Spanish economic growth and conservationist policies were pursued together during the last 20 years. As a result, Spain owns one of the largest networks of natural protected areas in Western Europe, and at the same time it has experienced one of the strongest periods of economic growths in the European and Mediterranean context during the 1980s and 1990s. An historical series of resource use in five annual periods in the last 20 years of conservation policy, and the effects on the preservation of natural capital have been investigated by means of the eMergy (spelled with an 'm') synthesis approach, which was used to characterize the flow of environmental services supplied by ecosystems, but not in monetary terms. This study shows that Spain is becoming less self-sufficient and more inefficient in resource use, comprehensively measured in eMergy terms. A large part of Spain's economy depends on imported goods and services, and most economic activities are based on tourist services and associated construction, which promotes intensification in the urban use of the territory and more intense environmental impacts and resource use intensification of those countries supplying the raw materials. The consequence is a decoupling of the Spanish economy from local environmental services and the increase of Ecological footprint of Spain, measured by means of eMergy-based indicators. In spite of the increase in number, area and associated budget of the natural protected areas and other conservation measures, the general sustainability of the nation is decreasing.     

新型自贸协定的环保议题谈判及我国的对策简

自由贸易协定中纳入环境保护规定是提高自由贸易中的正环境效应,同时避免或减轻负面环境影响的保障,已经逐渐成为新型国际自由贸易谈判中的重要内容。以跨太平洋战略经济伙伴关系协定为代表的新型自由贸易谈判,试图在协定中丰富环境条款,例如环保原则、国际环境公约、环境标准、争端解决机制、环境产业和服务、环境合作和能力建设等。我国也开始在自贸谈判中纳入环保要求,基于最新的政策要求,我国应积极赶上国际自由贸易谈判中环境保护的新要求,推动贸易与环保政策的深度融合。     

River systems as providers of goods and services: a basis for comparing desired and undesired effects of large dam projects

In developing countries, large dam projects continue to be launched, primarily to secure a time-stable freshwater supply and to generate hydropower. Meanwhile, calls for environmentally sustainable development put pressure on the dam-building industry to integrate ecological concerns in project planning and decision-making. Such integration requires environmental impact statements (EISs) that can communicate the societal implications of the ecological effects in terms that are understandable and useful to planners and decision-makers. The purpose of this study is to develop a basic framework for assessing the societal implications of the river ecological effects expected of a proposed large dam project. The aim is to facilitate a comparison of desired and potential undesired effects on-site and downstream. The study involves two main tasks: to identify key river goods and services that a river system may provide, and to analyze how the implementation of a large dam project may alter the on-site capacity and downstream potentials to derive river goods and services from the river system. Three river goods and six river services are identified. River goods are defined as extractable partly man-made products and river services as naturally sustained processes. By four main types of flow manipulations, a large dam project improves the on-site capacity to derive desired river goods, but simultaneously threatens the provision of desirable river goods and services downstream. However, by adjusting the site, design, and operational schedule of the proposed dam project, undesirable effects on river goods and services can be minimized.     

Mercury: The good, the bad, and the export ban

We analyze the bipartisan call to ban US exports of commodity mercury. An export ban can generate positive environmental benefits by increasing the scarcity of mercury in developing economies where significant toxic releases occur. We show, however, that a direct mercury purchase and retirement policy can achieve the same foreign environmental goals without adverse impacts on domestic environmental quality. We present qualitative and quantitative evidence that highlight the potential inefficiencies of a mercury export ban as a method of achieving environmental objectives.     

我国出口贸易中的碳排放转移测算研究

国际贸易中碳排放转移关系到贸易双方的碳权分配与碳排放责任,处理好贸易出口和碳排放关系非常重要。本研究应用投入产出法及模型,对我国2002—2011年出口贸易的碳排放进行测算。结果显示,出口贸易与出口贸易隐含碳排放呈现出同比增长关系,从出口规模和结构看,电气、机械及器材制造业,基本金属及金属制品业,通用、专用设备制造业,化学原料和化学制品制造业等行业的碳排放位居前列,行业高碳结构性特征明显;短期内出口贸易与出口隐含碳的正相关关系不会有明显变化,但从长期来看二者的正相关关系将会趋于减弱。本研究提出以碳减排为约束,转变出口贸易结构,促进传统制造业优化升级,发展低碳贸易产品和绿色产业等建议。     

Spatial and Temporal Variations in Eastern U.S. Hydrology: Responses to Global Climate Variability

Coastal ecosystems are dependent on terrestrial freshwater export which is affected by both climate trends and natural climate variability. However, the relative role of these factors is not clear. Here, both climate trends and internal climate variabilities at different time scales are related to variations in terrestrial freshwater export into the eastern United States (U.S.) coastal region. For the recent 35‐year period, the intensified hydro‐meteorological processes (annual precipitation or evapotranspiration) may explain the observed streamflow variability in the northeast. However, in the southeast, streamflow is positively correlated with climate variability induced by the Pacific Ocean conditions (El Nino‐Southern Oscillation [ENSO] and Pacific Decadal Oscillation) rather than Atlantic Ocean conditions (Atlantic Multi‐decadal Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation). The centroid location for volume of terrestrial freshwater export integrated along the eastern U.S. has a positive temporal trend and is negatively correlated with ENSO conditions, suggesting the northward trend in freshwater export to U.S. eastern coast may be disturbed by the natural climate variability, especially ENSO conditions, i.e., the center of freshwater mass moves southward (northward) during El Nino (La Nina) years. The results indicate the spatial and temporal variations in freshwater export from the eastern U.S. are affected by both climate change and inter‐annual climate variability during the recent 35‐year period (1980‐2014).     

The miombo woodlands at the cross roads: Potential threats, sustainable livelihoods, policy gaps and challenges

The Miombo, the most extensive tropical woodland formation of Africa directly supports the livelihoods of over 100 million people through the provision of many tree products and ecosystem services essential to both the rural and urban communities. While the destruction of the Miombo has often been blamed on the rural communities dwelling near the forest resources, many urban dwellers depend heavily on the various products derived from the woodlands. This paper highlights the importance of the Miombo in the livelihoods of rural people, the potential threats to this ecosystem and opportunities for its sustainable management. About 70% of energy consumed in southern Africa is in the form of fuelwood or charcoal. The economic importance of the Miombo especially from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is usually understated due to their perceived non-economic value yet they play an important role in sustaining livelihoods of forest dependent people in the miombo ecoregion. The Miombo also contributes to health services through the use of medicinal plant and products, in some cases, contributing up to 80% to rural health, including helping in coping with effects of HIV/AIDS, malaria and several diseases. The possibility of developing payment for environmental services schemes through public–private partnerships, and community-based sustainable management models are proposed. Through conservation and commercialization of some of the products and services, there is a potential to provide income and improve the livelihood of people involved in the trade along the value chain.     

International trade and air pollution: estimating the economic costs of air emissions from waterborne commerce vessels in the United States

Although there is a burgeoning literature on the effects of international trade on the environment, relatively little work has been done on where trade most directly effects the environment: the transportation sector. This article shows how international trade is affecting air pollution emissions in the United States' shipping sector. Recent work has shown that cargo ships have been long overlooked regarding their contribution to air pollution. Indeed, ship emissions have recently been deemed "the last unregulated source of traditional air pollutants". Air pollution from ships has a number of significant local, national, and global environmental effects. Building on past studies, we examine the economic costs of this increasing and unregulated form of environmental damage. We find that total emissions from ships are largely increasing due to the increase in foreign commerce (or international trade). The economic costs of SO2 pollution range from dollars 697 million to dollars 3.9 billion during the period examined, or dollars 77 to dollars 435 million on an annual basis. The bulk of the cost is from foreign commerce, where the annual costs average to dollars 42 to dollars 241 million. For NOx emissions the costs are dollars 3.7 billion over the entire period or dollars 412 million per year. Because foreign trade is driving the growth in US shipping, we also estimate the effect of the Uruguay Round on emissions. Separating out the effects of global trade agreements reveals that the trade agreement-led emissions amounted to dollars 96 to dollars 542 million for SO2 between 1993 and 2001, or dollars 10 to dollars 60 million per year. For NOx they were dollars 745 million for the whole period or dollars 82 million per year. Without adequate policy responses, we predict that these trends and costs will continue into the future.     

Global Trade in GM Food and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Consequences for China

The UN Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety adopted in Montreal, 29 January, 2000and opened for signature in Nairobi, 15–26 May,2000 will exert a profound effect oninternational trade in genetically modifiedorganisms (GMOs) and their products. In thispaper, the potential effects of variousarticles of the Protocol on international tradein GMOs are analyzed. Based on the presentstatus of imports of GMOs and domestic researchand development of biotechnology in China,likely trends in imports of foreign GM food andrelated products after China accedes to WTO isexplored. Also, China's potentialcountermeasures to control and regulate importsof GMOs in line with implementation of theProtocol are discussed. China, in recent times,has increased its food and agricultural importssubstantially from USA and Canada. Chinaimported soybean 10.42 mill. tons in 2000 andabout 15 mill tons in 2001, of which majorityare from USA where GM soybean accounts for60%. The plantation of US Monsanto'stransgenic Bt cotton was increased to more than1 million ha in China in 2001. Though China haspaid great attention to develop biotechnology,it appears to have little scope to export GMOsand GM products. So China may consider a rangeof administrative measures to implement theCartagena Protocol and to regulate its importof GMOs and GM agricultural products.Consequently, the Regulation on Safety ofAgri-GMOs was issued on June, 2001 and followedthree detailed rules issued in Jan. of 2002,with a priority to limit foreign GMOs importingby safety certification and labeling system.These were outlined taking into accountpolicies adopted in Western countries such asgreen barriers to international trade.