Projections of highway vehicle population,energy demand,and CO2 emissions in India to 2040

This paper presents projections of motor vehicles, oil demand, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions for India through the year 2040. The populations of highway vehicles and two‐wheelers are projected under three different scenarios on the basis of economic growth and average household size in India. The results show that by 2040, the number of highway vehicles in India would be 206‐309 million. The oil demand projections for the Indian transportation sector are based on a set of nine scenarios arising out of three vehicle‐growth and three fuel‐economy scenarios. The combined effects of vehicle‐growth and fuel‐economy scenarios, together with the change in annual vehicle usage, result in a projected demand in 2040 by the transportation sector in India of 404‐719 million metric tons (8.5‐15.1 million barrels per day). The corresponding annual CO₂ emissions are projected to be 1.2‐2.2 billion metric tons.     

The potential of advanced technologies to reduce carbon capture costs in future IGCC power plants

Over the next two decades, our nation will need to add a substantial amount of new power generation capacity. The possibility of more stringent environmental regulations for greenhouse gas emissions in the utility sector has provided a window of opportunity for integrated gasification combined cycles (IGCCs) equipped with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) to participate significantly in this expansion. This paper analyzes several advanced technologies under development in the Department of Energy (DOE) research and development (R&D) portfolio that have the potential to improve process efficiency, reduce capital and operating expense, and increase plant availability resulting in a significant reduction in the cost of electricity for plants that capture carbon.     

The environmental life cycle assessment of agricultural sector in Thailand: EIO‐LCA approach

Agriculture is one of the major sectors in Thailand, with more than half of the population employed in agriculture‐related occupations. This study evaluated energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the Thai agricultural sector by applying the economic input–output life cycle assessment (EIO‐LCA) approach. The model evaluates the entire agricultural sector supply chain. Based on one million Thai baht (approximately $27,800 U.S. dollars) final demand of the rice paddy sector, the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from the electricity sector are responsible for 27% (1,246 kilograms [kg] CO₂) of the total CO₂ emissions, whereas the emissions from paddy activities associated with the fertilizers and pesticides sector account for 16% (760 kg CO₂) and 11% (513 kg CO₂), respectively. The top three largest GHG emissions from the total agricultural sector supply chain are associated with the oil palm, the coffee and tea, and the fruit sectors. The government should promote and encourage sustainable agriculture by reducing the use of fertilizers and pesticides and by utilizing energy‐saving technologies.     

Meeting the climate change challenge: a scan of greenhouse gas emissions in BC communities

The Canadian province of British Columbia (BC) is taking significant steps towards climate change mitigation, including a carbon tax on fossil fuels and legislation that mandates greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions within public sector organisations and GHG reduction targets for municipalities. This paper carries out a preliminary scan of the GHG emissions of BC communities using the provincially mandated Community Energy and Emissions Inventory reports. We map trends in energy consumption and emissions per capita while uncovering correlations between these variables and land-use planning, geographic, and demographic variables. These data have shown that: (1) energy consumption in BC is an adequate proxy for GHG emissions; (2) transportation, more than buildings, is a strong driver of overall GHG emissions; (3) building emissions are not likely to be strongly influenced by dwelling type, but density of buildings is crucial; (4) geographic location influences emissions; and (5) population size and age do not appear to influence per capita emissions. These findings are particularly important as they suggest that the potentially intransigent factors of income and population size need not be barriers to achieving significant GHG reductions. The policy onus thus falls squarely on transportation planning, land-use, energy conservation, and fuel switching. This in turn highlights the importance of deeper underlying sociocultural and political preferences, which shape the behaviours that have a strong bearing on emissions profiles.     

Policy evaluation of vehicle exhaust standards in Japan from 1995 to 2005 based on two human health risk indices for air pollution and global warming

Measures for vehicle exhaust emissions aimed at reducing either air pollution or global warming could have counterproductive effects on one another. Increasing diesel passenger vehicles, which generally have lower CO₂ emissions than gasoline counterparts, leads to increasing particulate matter (PM) emissions, while gasoline has lower PM emissions than diesel. It is said that stringent limits on PM emission factors discourages improved CO₂ emission factors. Without including both effects in a risk evaluation, one cannot evaluate whether the total risk is reduced or not. Hence, we evaluated representative exhaust emission measures based on risk evaluation for both air pollution and global warming. Considering consumer choice between diesel and gasoline passenger vehicles and emissions standards adopted in Japan from 1995 to 2005, we built five cases for vehicle policy evaluation. For each case, we estimated disability-adjusted life years (DALY) as an index of human health risk caused by lung cancer linked to inhalation exposure of elemental carbon in PM as well as due to global warming linked to CO₂. The results of our risk evaluation reveal that the case adopting the 2005 new long-term Japanese emission standard reduces the human health risk caused by lung cancer due to air pollution by 0.6 × 10³ DALY, but would increase the risk due to global warming by 31.9 × 10³ DALY compared with the case of adopting EURO 4, for the same conditions of passenger vehicle choice from 1995. These results suggest that the characteristics of Japanese emissions standards are mainly designed to reduce air pollution.     

Evaluating the efficiency of green vehicles and diesel vehicles

One of the major interests of governments in the area of environmental protection is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and air pollutants’ emissions (HC, CO, NO_x, PM, and SO_x) from vehicles. This paper aims at evaluating the efficiency of green and diesel vehicles. Two hundred fifty vehicles were selected for comparison study. The results show that the efficiency of each type of vehicle hardly differed in 2008 and 2009, but the gap between green and diesel vehicles became significant in 2010–2012. The results also indicate that larger automotive companies and smaller green vehicles show higher efficiency in recent years, whereas the type of green vehicles and the origin of automotive companies are not significantly related to the efficiency score of green vehicles. These findings provide more information for understanding differences in green vehicles.     

Environmental impacts of absorption-based CO2 capture unit for post-combustion treatment of flue gas from coal-fired power plant

This study assesses potential environmental impacts of the absorption-based carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture unit that is integrated to coal-fired power plant for post-combustion treatment of flue gas. The assessment was performed by identifying potential pollutants and their sources as well as amounts of emissions from the CO₂ capture unit and also by reviewing toxicology, potential implications to human health and the environment, as well as the environmental laws and regulations associated with such pollutants. The assessment shows that, while offering a significant environmental benefit through a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, the installation of CO₂ capture units for post-combustion treatment might induce unintentional and potential burdens to human health and the environment through four emission pathways, including treated gas, process wastes, fugitive emissions, and accidental releases. Such burdens nevertheless can be predetermined and properly mitigated through a well-established environmental management program and mitigation measures. Recommendations to minimize these impacts are provided in this paper.     

“十二五”以来中国低碳发展进展及政策评估

中国已经比较系统地构建起推动低碳发展、积极应对气候变化的低碳发展目标体系、规划体系和体制机制,及时开展中国低碳发展进展及政策评估,对于反映政策进展与成效、识别问题与挑战、指导下一阶段的低碳发展工作具有重要意义。本文使用层次分析法构建起包含35个评价指标的中国低碳发展指数,对2010—2018年中国的低碳发展进展和政策进行系统的定性定量评价。结果显示:"十二五"以来,中国的低碳产业发展进展显著,但二氧化碳排放控排水平、能源领域的低碳发展仍有较大提升空间;低碳发展政策建设水平显著提升,但低碳发展政策目标的科学性和有效性不足,管理体制、制度建设、配套机制均有待完善。本文建议,围绕国家二氧化碳排放达峰目标,研究制定"十四五"时期低碳发展的政策目标,以碳排放总量管理作为2020年以后我国低碳发展的基础性制度,有序推动低碳发展配套制度建设,完善低碳管理的信息机制和资金机制建设,抓好建筑、交通等重点领域碳排放增量管理工作,加强对已发布的低碳发展相关规划、控温方案、低碳试点示范的效果评估。     

Greenhouse gas emissions and poverty alleviation nexus in the Economic Commission of West African States

This paper investigates the nexus between greenhouse gas emissions and poverty alleviation in the Economic Commission of West African States between 1985 and 2020 applying autoregressive distributed lag and Granger causality techniques. The results reveal that carbon dioxide non-significantly relates to gross domestic product per capita positively while nitrous oxide and foreign direct investment impacts gross domestic product per capita positively. Methane negatively impacts gross domestic product per capita. The governments should use conventions to regulate greenhouse gas emissions’ effects on environmental degradation regionally and globally. The study underscores that countries should diversify to cleaner energy sources. This would reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. Massive technological investment is required to mitigate the greenhouse gas emissions’ negative impacts on the environment which create poverty. This policy implication ensures environmental sustainability and reverses the ugly trend of greenhouse gas emissions on poverty.     

美国油气行业国家温室气体清单和报送体系

甲烷是由人类活动造成的仅次于二氧化碳的第二大温室气体,大幅度减少甲烷排放有助于降低近期温升,是实现巴黎协定目标的必要手段,也是中国实现“碳中和”目标的重要抓手。相比其他排放源,油气行业的甲烷减排最快、最有经济性。而有效的减排政策和监管必须建立在完整、准确的甲烷排放清单基础上。文章以甲烷为重点,概述了美国国家温室气体清单和油气行业的报送制度,介绍了两个报送体系的覆盖范围、要求等相关差异,说明了设施界定、排放因子和活动水平来源、监测方法以及有待改进之处,并针对中国油气行业甲烷排放数据的质量改善提出了建议。     

The relationship among economic growth,CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions,and energy use in the APEC countries: a panel VAR approach

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship among economic growth, carbon dioxide emissions, and energy use for 19 APEC countries over the 1960–2013 years. Using a panel VAR technique, a three-variable VAR is estimated. Empirical findings illustrate that no causal relationship emerges between real GDP and energy use. Thus, our empirical evidence is in line with the “neutrality hypothesis.” Moreover, panel cointegration tests show that a long-run equilibrium relationship is questionable for the APEC countries. Granger causality analyses confirm our previous results, since in nine countries any causal relationship between GDP and energy is found.     

Bulgaria Country Study to address climate change mitigation

Future developments of the Bulgarian economy, energy demand, energy supply, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are projected and evaluated for baseline and mitigation scenarios. Different methods and approaches are used at different stages of the study with a tendency to incorporate them in a single integrated resource planning tool such as the MARKAL-MACRO model. The results obtained indicate that the aim of Framework Convention of Climate Change to have year 2000 GHG emissions below the base year 1988 emissions will be achieved without further mitigation steps. Reducing the expected increase of GHG emissions in the decade 2000 to 2010 requires a package of mitigation measures to be implemented in the next few years.

     

Improving National-Scale Carbon Stock Inventories Using Knowledge on Land Use History

National-scale inventories of soil organic carbon (SOC) and forest floor carbon (FFC) stocks have a high uncertainty. Inventories are often based on the interpolation of sampled information, often using a number of covariables to help such interpolation. The rationale for the choice of these covariables is not always documented, despite the fact that many local-scale studies have identified the factors explaining spatial variability of SOC and FFC stocks. These studies indicate, among others the importance of long-term land use history. Despite this, information on the effects of land use history has never been used to explain variability of carbon stocks in national-scale inventories. We designed an alternative method to improve national-scale inventories of SOC and FCC for the Dutch sand area that takes stock of the findings of detailed case studies. Determinants for SOC and FFC stocks derived from landscape-scale case studies were used to map national-scale spatial variability and to calculate national totals. The resulting national-scale spatial distribution was compared with the SOC stock map from the current Dutch greenhouse gas inventory. Using land use history to explain SOC variability decreased the error of the SOC stock estimate in 60 % of the area. The error in FFC stocks decreased in half of the forest area after including soil fertility, tree species, and forest age as explanatory factors. Estimates with reduced uncertainty will make land use and land management a more attractive and acceptable mitigation option to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for the LULUCF sector.     

Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low- Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation

The increased concern about environmental problems caused by inadequate waste management, as well as the concern about global warming, promotes actions toward a sustainable management of the organic fraction of the waste. Landfills, the most common means to dispose of municipal solid waste (MSW), lead to the conversion of the organic waste to biogas, containing about 50% methane, a very active greenhouse gas (GHG). One unit of methane has a global warming potential of 21 computed for a 100-year horizon or 56 computed for 20 years. The waste sector in Israel contributes 13% of total greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for a time horizon of 100 years (for a time horizon of 20 years, the waste sector contribution equals to more than 25% of total GHG emissions). The ultimate goal is to minimize the amount of methane (CH₄) by converting it to CO₂. This can be achieved by physicochemical means (e.g., landfill gas flare, incineration) or by biological processes (e.g., composting, anaerobic digestion). Since the waste in Israel has a high organic material content, it was found that the most cost-effective means to treat the degradable organic components is by aerobic composting (investment of less than US$ 10 to reduce emission of one ton CO₂ equivalent per year). Another benefit of this technology is the ability to implement it within a short period. The suggested approach, which should be implemented especially in developing countries, could reduce a significant amount of GHG at relatively low cost and short time. The development of a national policy for proper waste treatment can be a significant means to abate GHG emissions in the short term, enabling a gain in time to develop other means for the long run. In addition, the use of CO₂ quotas will credit the waste sector and will promote profitable proper waste management.     

Greenhouse gas emissions along the rural-urban gradient

This paper investigates how land use relates to greenhouse gas emissions, using data sources that are readily available to municipal planners. It presents a causal framework linking settlement patterns to greenhouse gas emissions via landscape impacts (deforestation, carbon sequestration by soils and plants, urban heat island), infrastructure impacts (transportation-related emissions, waste management-related emissions, electric transmission and distribution losses) and buildings (residential, commercial). This is not a full accounting because it does not include impacts from industrial activities, agriculture and consumer behavior not related to land use, such as food consumption and air travel. Exploratory case studies of municipalities lying along a gradient of increasing population density suggest that per-capita carbon dioxide emissions vary widely, following an inverted ‘U’ shape, with post-war suburbs riding the pinnacle. Reflecting their central regional roles, municipalities with good jobs-to-housing ratios have higher per-capita emissions because they host both residential and commercial buildings. Buildings typically contribute more emissions than personal transportation. Vehicle-miles traveled per capita shrink most dramatically at very high population densities and where transit options exist. Changing land-use patterns is a political challenge because localism and outdated zoning ordinances subvert regional solutions. Technical fixes, especially green buildings, must be part of the solution.     

The greenhouse gas balance of the Province of Siena

There is a profound debate over how to assign greenhouse gas (GHG) responsibilities; therefore, we have decided to follow IPCC guidelines, as they offer the only standardized method. We have identified each type of greenhouse emission and its level of absorption. We have studied the province and its districts and municipalities. We have determined that the energy sector is that with the highest level of emissions, even if the per capita emissions of the Province of Siena are very low. This is caused by a very low level of industrialization and the presence of a local geothermal production of energy. In order to highlight this aspect, we have considered scenarios both with and without geothermal production. Our research was then focused on single districts (groups of homogenous municipalities) and municipalities, where we found great differences among the greenhouse emissions of the areas. We have constructed a map of the greenhouse emissions of the whole province. It has been interesting to note that there are 14 municipalities with net negative emissions, seven with low positive emissions, 12 with medium positive emissions and three with elevated positive emissions. These latter correspond to the main city and to two of the most industrialized municipalities.     

Energy consumption and carbon emission for tourism transport in World Heritage Sites: a case of the Wulingyuan area in China

Transport profoundly affects energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in the tourism sector. The Wulingyuan Scenic Area (WSA), a natural heritage destination in China, is chosen for the case study. The energy consumption and carbon emission of 10 types of tourism transportation modes at the destination are measured and analyzed using a bottom‐up approach for the period of 1979 to 2010. Scenarios were created to project the effects of single and multiple factors on energy consumption and carbon emission by tourism transportation during 2011‐2020. The results showed the following: (a) there is a large difference in energy consumption and carbon emission per capita and per kilometer per capita among the 10 vehicle modes; (b) the monthly energy consumption and carbon emission of tourism transportation differed significantly, the month with the highest (October) are respectively 6.8 and 4 times that of the lowest month (January); (c) the highest annual growth rate of energy consumption and carbon emission are respectively as 32.16% and 27.98% during 1979‐2010; and (d) the amount of energy consumption and carbon emission in the multiple factor scenarios are lower than that in the reference and single factor scenarios during 2011‐2020.     

Strategies for Emission Reduction of Air Pollutants Produced from a Chemical Plant

Various air pollution control (APC) techniques were employed in order to reduce emissions of air pollutants produced from chemical plants, which have many different chemical production facilities. For an emission reduction of acid gases, this study employed a method to improve solubility of pollutants by decreasing the operating temperature of the scrubbers, increasing the surface area for effective contact of gas and liquid, and modifying processes in the acid scrubbers. To reduce emission of both amines and acid gases, pollutant gas components were first separated, then condensation and/or acid scrubbing, depending on the chemical and physical properties of pollutant components, were used. To reduce emission of solvents, condensation and activated carbon adsorption were employed. To reduce emission of a mixture gases containing acid gases and solvents, the mixed gases were passed into the first condenser, the acid scrubber, the second condenser, and the activated carbon adsorption tower in sequence. As a strategy to reduce emission of pollutants at the source, this study also employed the simple pollution prevention concept of modification of the previously operating APC control device. Finally, air emissions of pollutants produced from the chemical plants were much more reduced by applying proper APC methods, depending upon the types (physical or chemical properties) and the specific emission situations of pollutants.     

Energy use,blue water footprint,and greenhouse gas emissions for current food consumption patterns and dietary recommendations in the US

This article measures the changes in energy use, blue water footprint, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with shifting from current US food consumption patterns to three dietary scenarios, which are based, in part, on the 2010 USDA Dietary Guidelines (US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services in Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010, 7th edn, US Government Printing Office, Washington, 2010). Amidst the current overweight and obesity epidemic in the USA, the Dietary Guidelines provide food and beverage recommendations that are intended to help individuals achieve and maintain healthy weight. The three dietary scenarios we examine include (1) reducing Caloric intake levels to achieve “normal” weight without shifting food mix, (2) switching current food mix to USDA recommended food patterns, without reducing Caloric intake, and (3) reducing Caloric intake levels and shifting current food mix to USDA recommended food patterns, which support healthy weight. This study finds that shifting from the current US diet to dietary Scenario 1 decreases energy use, blue water footprint, and GHG emissions by around 9 %, while shifting to dietary Scenario 2 increases energy use by 43 %, blue water footprint by 16 %, and GHG emissions by 11 %. Shifting to dietary Scenario 3, which accounts for both reduced Caloric intake and a shift to the USDA recommended food mix, increases energy use by 38 %, blue water footprint by 10 %, and GHG emissions by 6 %. These perhaps counterintuitive results are primarily due to USDA recommendations for greater Caloric intake of fruits, vegetables, dairy, and fish/seafood, which have relatively high resource use and emissions per Calorie.     

Greenhouse gas emissions in Canada and Japan: sector-specific estimates and managerial and economic implications

Many firms generate large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases when they burn fossil fuels in their production processes. In addition, production of raw materials and other inputs the firms procure for their operations also generates greenhouse gases indirectly. These direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions occur in many sectors of our economies. In this paper, we first present sector-specific estimates for such greenhouse gas emissions. We then show that estimates for such sector-specific greenhouse gas emissions are often required for various types of corporate as well as public policy analyses in both domestic and international contexts. Measuring greenhouse gas emissions resulting from firms' multi-stage production processes in a multi-sector context is relevant for policies related to the Kyoto protocol, an international agreement to limit global greenhouse gas emissions. For example, since the protocol allows firms to engage in trading and offsetting of their greenhouse gas emissions across national borders, provided that emissions are correctly measured, the firms can take advantage of such trading schemes by placing their energy-intensive production facilities globally and strategically. We present several case studies which illustrate the importance of this and other aspects of greenhouse gas emissions in firms' environmental management. We also argue that our modeling and estimation methods based on input-output analyses are suitable for the types of research goals we have in this paper. Our methods are applied to data for Canada and Japan in a variety of environmental management circumstances.