Diversity of root associated microorganisms of selected medicinal plants and influence of rhizomicroorganisms on the antimicrobial property of Coriandrum sativum

The total heterotrophic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungus were enumerated from the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil of 50 selected locally available medicinal plants in and around Bharathiar University. In all the plants, population of microorganism were higher in the rhizosphere soil than in the non rhizosphere soil. Among the microorganisms, bacterial population was higher in number followed by fungus and actinomycetes. Of the medicinal plants, the maximum rhizosphere effect was observed in Annona squamosa and the minimum effect was seen in Eclipta alba and Cassia auriculata. Among the bacteria the dominant species was Bacillus followed by Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Micrococcus and Serratia. The Streptomyces species was found to be dominant followed by Deuteromycetes and Frankia among the actinomycetes. Among the fungal isolates Rhizopus was found to be higher in number followed by Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor and Fusarium. About 70.96% of the bacterial isolates were found to be nitrate reducers and 90.60% of the bacteria solubilised phosphate. The rhizosphere bacterial isolates were also capable of hydrolyzing starch, cellulose, casein, urea and gelatin. The isolates of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungus were also able to produce phytohormone Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The maximum IAA production was recorded by Fusarium sp (5.8 mg/l). The rhizosphere bacterial isolates showed resistance to 14 commercially used antibiotics. In an attempt to check the influence of these plant growth promoting microorganisms on the antimicrobial property of Coriandrum sativum against Escherichia coli MTCC-443 and Aeromonas hydrophila MTCC-646, the results observed was not encouraging since the inoculants did not influence the antibacterial property. However extensive and in depth study is required to find out the influence of rhizomicroorganisms on the antibacterial property of medicinal plants. The other results clearly indicated that the rhizosphere microorganisms could be exploited for its innumerable properties and active metabolites.     

Indigenous Uses, Population Density, and Conservation of Threatened Medicinal Plants in Protected Areas of the Indian Himalayas

Abstract:  For 10 years I monitored the population density of threatened medicinal plant species in seven protected areas in the Indian Himalayas. I also documented the indigenous uses of threatened medicinal plants through interviews with 138 herbal healers (83 Tibetan healers and 55 Ayurvedic healers) residing in the buffer zone villages of these protected areas. To assess the population status of threatened medicinal plant species, I sampled the 10 major habitat types in the protected areas. In all, I found 60 threatened medicinal plant species during the study period, of which 54 species occurred in the sampling plots. Twenty-two percent of threatened medicinal plant species were critically endangered, 16% were endangered, and 27% were vulnerable. Thirty-two threatened medicinal plant species were endemic to the Himalayan region. The density of threatened medicinal plant species varied with protected areas. The Valley of Flowers protected area had the highest number of threatened medicinal plant species. The "moist" habitat type was richest in these species among all 10 habitat types sampled. Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) Johnston and Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf. were the most common threatened medicinal plant species. The indigenous groups of healers used these threatened species in curing about 45 different ailments. Based on my findings, I believe that to ensure the long-term sustainability of threatened medicinal plants, medicinal-plant conservation areas should be established.     

Protection versus culture-driven exploitation of wild plant resources: the case on Changbai Mountain

Under Chinese culture it is believed that herbal medicine is always safe and wild food is always healthy. Generally, the rarer a plant, the higher its value. The booming economy in China has promoted tourism development in wilderness areas and wild medicinal and food plants are part of the attraction to tourists. Conflicts between wild plant exploitation and protection have emerged in many parts of China, such as Changbai Mountain. Changbai Mountain supports numerous medicinal and food plants but many have become rare and endangered. This paper numerically evaluates 30 plant species that have relatively high conservation value for each type (medicinal, ornamental and food), and briefly describes the uses of four to five top ranked species per type that need more protection on Changbai Mountain. This paper also addresses some tree species with important timber values on Changbai Mountain. Over 90% of China's medicinal, ornamental and food plant species, as well as valuable timber trees are found in the conifer–broadleaf mixed forest zone across the boundary of Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve. It is a major challenge to protect the native biodiversity of mixed forest on Changbai Mountain and more efforts need to be made to protect rare and endangered plant species with high economic value.     

Transfer rate of pesticide residues from medicinal plants in different types of extractive solutions

Abstract

Starting from the suspicion that the medicinal herbs may contain traces of pesticides and taking into account the risks of patients being exposed to contaminated products, the aim of this research was to evaluate the pesticide residues and the degree of their transfer (%) in three types of preparations (infusion, decoctionand cold maceration), for four medicinal plant species very often used in phytotherapy (Rosmarini folium, Menthae folium, Saturejae herba and Basilica herba). For each type of plant product, four samples were purchased from different manufacturers and they have been analyzed using gas chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry. One out of four samples of the same plant species contain at least one pesticide residue above the maximum level and shows a significant transfer of these residues in aqueous extractive solutions during extraction. The highest rate of pesticide transfer from medicinal plants was identified in infusions, recommended by many manufacturers.     

Usage and the economic potential of the medicinal plants in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey

Medically used plant species in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey was determined in this study. Totally 50 species within 24 families have been designated in 25 research points, using the face to face polling method with the herbs sellers and purchasers. 14 species of studied plants are endemic and pointed out as endangered species according to the IUCN list (The World Conservation Union). In which health problem the medicinal plants are used, their usage art, area and the used parts have been determined too. The research results show that 12.58% of the species are used in intestinal problems and 8.60% for diuretic. Evaluating from this point of view the region includes very rich species could be used in different health problems. The results shows that average annual income of the medically used plant selling companies is about 33,333$. Increasingly demands for the medically used plants have been raised the medically used plant companies about 60% in the last decade. The relevance of Ethnopharmacologically used plants is increasing in Turkey and in the World. Important is to meet the demand without endanger the rich plant species resources.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in medicinal plants from Syria

The levels of 16 US Environmental Protection Agency polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (EPA PAHs) in 10 medicinal plants in different used parts of plant (leaves and flowers) have been determined. The analytical method consists of sample preparation by ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane followed by silica gel clean-up. Subsequently, the analysis was carried out by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to both ultraviolet and fluorescence detections in series to insure the detection of all 16 EPA PAHs. It was observed that the sum of the 16 PAHs (ΣPAHs) in the investigated medicinal plants ranged from 47 to 890 μg kg^–1 where the highest ΣPAHs was found in Sage plant sample. Light PAHs were dominants in all studied medicinal plants. The sum of eight genotoxic PAHs (ΣPAH8) have shown a better indicator of the degree of contamination with carcinogenic PAHs compared to benzo[a]pyrene in these products.     

Ecological niche modeling of customary medicinal plant species used by Australian Aborigines to identify species-rich and culturally valuable areas for conservation

Customary medicinal plant species used by Australian Aborigines are disappearing rapidly with its associated knowledge, due to the loss of habitats. Conservation and protection of these species is important as they represent sources of novel therapeutic phytochemical compounds and are culturally valuable. Information on the spatial distribution and use of customary medicinal plants is often inadequate and fragmented, posing limitations on the identification and conservation of species-rich areas and culturally valuable habitats.In this study, the habitat suitability modeling program, MaxEnt, was used to predict the potential ecological niches of 431 customary medicinal plant species, based on bioclimatic variables. Specimen locality records were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) data portal and from Australia's Virtual Herbarium (AVH).Ecological niche models of 414 predicted species, which had 30 or more occurrence points, were used to produce maps indicating areas that were ecologically suitable for multiple species (concordance of high predicted ecological suitability) and having cultural values. For the concordance map, individual species niche models were thresholded and summed. To derive a map of culturally valuable areas, customary medicinal uses from Customary Medicinal Knowledgebase (CMKb) (www.biolinfo.org/cmkb) were used to weight individual species models, resulting in a value within each grid cell reflecting its cultural worth.Even though the available information is scarce and fragmented, our approach provides an opportunity to infer areas predicted to be suitable for multiple species (i.e. concordance hotspots) and to estimate the cultural value of a particular geographical area. Our results also indicate that to conserve bio-cultural diversity, comprehensive information and active participation of Aboriginal communities is indispensable.     

Local Species Richness of Leaf-Chewing Insects Feeding on Woody Plants from One Hectare of a Lowland Rainforest

Abstract:  Local species diversity of insect herbivores feeding on rainforest vegetation remains poorly known. This ignorance limits evaluation of species extinction patterns following various deforestation scenarios. We studied leaf-chewing insects feeding on 59 species of woody plants from 39 genera and 18 families in a lowland rainforest in Papua New Guinea and surveyed all plants with a stem diameter at breast height of ≥5 cm in a 1-ha plot within the same area. We used two extrapolation methods, based on randomized species-accumulation curves, to combine these two data sets and estimate the number of species of leaf-chewing herbivores feeding on woody plants from the 1-ha area. We recorded 58,483 feeding individuals from 940 species of leaf-chewing insects. The extrapolation estimated that there were 1567–2559 species of leaf-chewing herbivores feeding on the 152 plant species from 97 genera and 45 families found in 1 ha of the forest. Most of the herbivore diversity was associated with plant diversity on the familial and generic levels. We predicted that, on average, the selection of 45 plant species each representing a different family supported 39% of all herbivore species, the 52 plant species each representing a different additional genus from these families supported another 39% of herbivore species, and the remaining 55 plant species from these genera supported 22% of herbivore species. Lepidoptera was the most speciose taxon in the local fauna, followed by Coleoptera and orthopteroids (Orthoptera and Phasmatodea). The ratio of herbivore to plant species and the estimated relative species richness of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and orthopteroids remained constant on the spatial scale from 0.25 to 1 ha. However, the utility of local taxon-to-taxon species ratios for extrapolations to geographic scales requires further study.     

Usage of non-timber forest products by women in forest villages of Trabzon, Turkey

Women are responsible for procuring the food for their family in many places in the world. The usage of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) reaches to the beginning of the humanity NTFPs are used for food and medicine especially in the developing countries as a whole. In this research, totally 611 questionnaires were conducted with women participants by polling face to face in 68 forest villages in the research area. The main reason for studying with women is that; the gathering activities are usually done by women in that area and they also knew the used parts and how to use the NTFPs. Results showed that about 14.4% of the women in the research area are gathering the plants for food (17 species and 2-8 kg annually) and 9.2% of the women are gathering the plants for medicinal purposes (16 species and 1-4 kg annually). These plants are usually used for additional medicinal treatments. 4 species are used for livestock treatment and 2 species in the hand weaving.     

Traditional Plant Harvesting in Contemporary Fragmented and Urban Landscapes

Abstract: Ecosystem fragmentation and destruction can lead to restrictive administration policies on traditional harvesting by indigenous peoples from remaining ecosystem tracts. In New Zealand, concerns about endangered species and governmental policies that focus on species and ecosystem preservation have resulted in severely curtailed traditional harvesting rights. Although provision has been made for limited gathering of traditional plants from government‐administered conservation lands, it is unclear how much harvesting is undertaken on these lands and elsewhere and what this harvest might consist of. We interviewed seven expert Maori elders from the Waikato, New Zealand, to identify plant species they currently harvested and from where. We compared these data with the data we collected on permits issued for plant collecting on conservation lands in the same region. We sought to gain information on indigenous plant harvesting to determine the extent of permitted harvesting from conservation lands in the Waikato and to identify issues that might affect plant harvesting and management. Elders identified 58 species they harvest regularly or consider culturally important; over 50% of these species are harvested for medicinal use. Permit data from 1996 to 2006 indicated no apparent relationship between species of reported cultural significance and the number of permits issued for each of these species. Currently, few plant species are harvested from conservation lands, although some unofficial harvesting occurs. Elders instead reported that medicinal plants are frequently collected from urban and other public areas. They reported that plant species used for dyeing, carving, and weaving are difficult to access. Elders also discussed concerns such as spraying of roadsides, which resulted in the death of medicinal species, and use of commercial hybrids in urban planning. Local government may have an increasingly important role in supporting native traditions through urban planning, which takes account of cultural harvesting needs while potentially reducing future harvesting pressure on conservation lands. We suggest that active participation by the Māori community in the development and management of urban harvesting resources will result in positive outcomes.     

喀斯特生境下AMF侵染对任豆生长的影响

喀斯特地区土壤退化,植被定植更新困难,丛枝菌根真菌(Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF)具有增强植物养分吸收能力和抵抗逆境胁迫能力。研究喀斯特生境下植物与AMF共生效果,选择优势菌种促进喀斯特植被恢复,对于提高植物定植成活率具有重要作用。以豆科植物任豆(Zenia insignis)幼苗为试验材料,盆栽条件下,选取喀斯特优势菌种-摩西球囊霉(Funneliformis mosseae)、根内球囊霉(Rhizophagus intraradices),2种菌根真菌混合菌剂进行接种,培养180 d,研究贫瘠喀斯特土壤生境和养分较高的滇柏林下土壤生境下AMF对任豆生长影响。结果表明:摩西球囊霉、根内球囊霉和混合接种均能侵染任豆根系,幼嫩根系更易侵染,木质化根系侵染率下降。接种摩西球囊霉,贫瘠喀斯特土壤生境下,株高、地径、地上生物量、地下生物量和总生物量分别提高68.92%、56.18%、83.90%、42.20%和67.34%;养分较高的滇柏林下喀斯特土壤生境下,株高、地上生物量、地下生物量和总生物量分别提高48.05%、6.77%、7.92%和8.89%;根内球囊霉处理接种效应低于摩西球囊霉和混合接种处理,对生物量增长为负效应,混合接种处理接种效应介于单接种之间,摩西球囊霉接种效果优于根内球囊霉和混合接种。摩西球囊霉在贫瘠喀斯特土壤生境下发挥的促生效应优于养分较高的喀斯特土壤,可作为喀斯特侵蚀区植被恢复菌根真菌干扰途径的优势菌种,混合接种作为接种剂具有单接种兼容效应。     

Quantifying progress toward a conservation assessment for all plants

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) set an ambitious target to achieve a conservation assessment for all known plant species by 2020. We consolidated digitally available plant conservation assessments and reconciled their scientific names and assessment status to predefined standards to provide a quantitative measure of progress toward this target. The 241,919 plant conservation assessments generated represent 111,824 accepted land plant species (vascular plants and bryophytes, not algae). At least 73,081 and up to 90,321 species have been assessed at the global scale, representing 21–26% of known plant species. Of these plant species, at least 27,148 and up to 32,542 are threatened. Eighty plant families, including some of the largest, such as Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, and Rubiaceae, are underassessed and should be the focus of assessment effort if the GSPC target is to be met by 2020. Our data set is accessible online (ThreatSearch) and is a baseline that can be used to directly support other GSPC targets and plant conservation action. Although around one‐quarter of a million plant assessments have been compiled, the majority of plants are still unassessed. The challenge now is to build on this progress and redouble efforts to document conservation status of unassessed plants to better inform conservation decisions and conserve the most threatened species.     

Using Gall Wasps on Oaks to Test Broad Ecological Concepts

Abstract:  Planning conservation of insect herbivores requires knowing what needs to be conserved and developing a set of predictor variables that aid management. We conducted a state-wide survey to examine the species richness of gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) on six oak species dominant in the threatened scrub-oak vegetation in peninsular Florida. Eighty-eight cynipid species were recorded; 23 were new species to Florida (a 35% increase), including 17 species new to science and 6 species newly recorded in the state. The cynipid species represented 68% of cynipids of Florida, on only 24% of oak species sampled. This fauna represents a hotspot of richness, justifying conservation initiatives in scrub-oak habitat and throughout the state. We derived predictor variables from general ecological concepts: (1) the theory of island biogeography that insect species richness increases as host plant geographic area increases and as local abundance increases, (2) the plant-architecture hypothesis that insect species richness increases with increased plant size, and (3) phytochemical patterns in leaves, including nutrients and digestibility reducers predicting suitability for insect herbivores. Concepts 1 and 2, developed for large scales and species numbers, were tested at smaller scales relevant to much conservation research and management. A stepwise multiple regression including all predictor variables accounted for 99% of the variance in cynipid species richness with three variables: foliar hemicellulose concentration (81%), host geographic area (16%), and tree height (2%). The trends were negative, however, and opposite to those predicted by concepts 1 and 2. Ecological theory was not applicable to discovery of predictors of cynipid species richness on six oak species. Thus, we promote caution in applying ecological theory to a narrow set of species without specific testing of how patterns conform to theoretical predictions.     

The floristics and conservation status of sand-dune communities in Wales

An inventory of the vascular plants, bryophytes, fungi and terricolous lichens recorded within the different sand-dune communities in Wales has been compiled and a summary of the importance of these different taxonomic groups to the ecology and conservation of sand dunes is provided. The total floristic assemblage amounted to 945 species, with vascular plants representing 439 of these. Fungi unexpectedly formed the next most important group with ca. 289 species, followed by bryophytes (171 species) and terricolous lichens (66 species). However, very few of these species are confined to sand dunes. Of the vascular plants only ca. 7 % (32 species) could be classed as either wholly dependent or strongly associated with sand dunes, whereas up to 13% (22 species) of the bryophytes fell within this category. Of the fungi only 4% (10 species) appear to be restricted to sand dunes, but none of the lichen species could be classed as being either limited to, or strongly associated with, this habitat. Over 9% (91 species) of the total flora are considered to be rare, scarce or endangered within the UK or Europe, and ca. 8% of the vascular plant species are considered to be endemic or near-endemic to Europe. The inventory therefore not only provides an insight in the overall plant diversity of dune systems in Wales, it also gives an indication of the proportion of species that are under threat, and the numbers of species that are more-or-less totally dependent on sand dunes. In the discussion various relevant sand-dune management issues are addressed.     

Population structure and community characteristics of Acer catalpifolium Rehd北大核心CSCD

Acer catalpifolium Rehd., a critically endangered tree species with an extremely limited range of distribution, is one of the 120 plant species with extremely small populations, as approved by the state forestry administration of the People's Republic of China and requires urgent rescue action. In order to comprehensively understand the population status and the future developmental trend of A. catalpifolium, the plant communities were investigated from 5 sites, including Caishenmiao (CSM), Banruosi (BRS), Zhangshancun (ZSC), Fuhusi (FHS), and Baoguosi (BGS). The population structure of A. catalpifolium as well as the species composition and community characteristics of its habitat were investigated. The results showed that A. catalpifolium is mainly distributed in the evergreen broad-leaved and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forests, in different community layers, namely, the tree layer, shrub layer, and herb layer, and is accompanied by 52, 74, and 52 plant species, respectively. Analyses of the distribution of population abundance revealed that BRS had the largest distribution of A. catalpifolium, accounting for 26.04% of the total population, followed by FHS, ZSC, BGS, and CSM, in that order. Analyses of the community characteristics revealed that the species diversity indices in FHS, BRS, BGS, and CSM were greater than that in ZSC. Analyses of the population age structure of A. catalpifolium revealed the gap in the distribution of the levels of seedlings and young trees. There were serious obstacles to the regeneration of the natural population. We concluded that the obstacle to the regeneration of the population of A. catalpifolium might be caused by the high competitive pressure from the dominant species and the micro-environment in the forest. Understanding the community characteristics and the population structure of A. catalpifolium could provide a theoretical foundation for its reintroduction and recovery. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

电镀污染区植物对复合重金属的富集、转移和对污染土壤的修复潜力

采用野外采样室内分析方法,对重庆市3个电镀厂污染区自然定居的23种优势植物和相应土壤中Cu、Zn、Cr和Ni 4种重金属含量进行测定,揭示了优势植物对复合污染重金属的富集和转移特征。结果表明,电镀污染区土壤中Cu、Zn、Cr和Ni平均含量分别为560.0、722.6、1 364.3和735.7 mg·kg-1,分别为GB 15618—1995《土壤环境质量标准》中三级标准限值的1.40、1.45、3.90和3.68倍。植物对重金属的吸收、富集和转移特性因植物种类、植株部位、污染地及重金属种类的不同而不同,污染地植物吸收的重金属富集滞留在根部较多,扁穗牛鞭草(Hemarthria compressa)和野薄荷(Mentha haplocalyx)表现出超富集Cr的潜力,其地上部分Cr平均含量分别为1 559.2和1 914.6 mg.kg-1,生物转运系数分别为1.29和1.58,生物富集系数分别为1.58和1.79,其他植物地上部分Cr含量超过正常植物百倍以上的有14种,平均富集量为376.4 mg·kg-1,变化范围为121.2～694.3 mg·kg-1,地上部分Ni含量超过正常植物百倍以上的有8种,平均富集量为344.1 mg·kg-1,变化范围为220.3～532.1 mg·kg-1。它们是修复电镀重金属Cr和Ni复合污染土壤的理想植物。     

Studies on mycorrhizal inoculation on dry matter yield and root colonization of some medicinal plants grown in stress and forest soils

Five medicinal plants viz. Abelmoschatus moschatus Linn., Clitoria tematea L., Plumbagozeylanica L., Psorolea corylifolia L. and Withania sominifera L. were grown in a polypot experiment in five soils representing coal mine soil, coppermine soil, fly ash, skeletal soil and forest soil with and without mycorrhizal inoculations in a completely randomized block design. Dry matter yield and mycorrhizal root colonization of plants varied both in uninoculated and inoculated conditions. The forest soil rendered highest dry matter due to higher yield of A. moschatus, P. zeylanica and P corylifolia while fly ash showed lowest dry matter without any inoculants. P. cematea were best in coalmine soil and W. sominifera in copper mine soil without mycorrhizal inoculation. The mycorrhiza was found to enhance the dry matter yield. This contributed minimum 0.19% to maximum up to 422.0% in different soils as compared to uninoculated plants. The mycorrhizal dependency was noticed maximum in plants grown in fly ash followed by coal mine soil, copper mine soil, skeletal soil and forest soil. The mycorrhizal response was increased maximum in W. sominifera due to survival in fly ash after inoculation followed by P corylifolia and P cematea. Percent root colonization in inoculated plant was increased minimum of 1.10 fold to maximum of 12.0 folds in comparison to un-inoculated plants . The native mycorrhiza fungi were also observed to colonize 4.0 to 32.0% roots in plants understudy. This study suggests that mycorrhizal inoculation increased the dry matter yield of medicinal plants in all soils under study. It also helps in survival of W. sominifera in fly ash.     

Diversity,endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya

SUMMARY

The rich plant diversity of the Indian Himalaya is utilized by the native communities in various forms as medicine, edible/food, fodder, fuel, timber, agricultural tools, etc. Among these, wild edible plants form an important source as a supplement/substitute food in times of scarcity for native communities. Because land holdings are small and subsistence agriculture prevails, the natives gather many wild plants for food. This paper presents an inventory of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya used by local communities. Over 675 wild plant species, representing 384 genera and 149 families, are used as food/edible and their various parts are either consumed raw, roasted, boiled, fried, cooked or in the form of oil, spice, seasoning material, jams, pickles, etc. The species were analysed for diversity in different phytogeographical provinces, altitudinal distribution, endemism, origin and potentials. West Himalaya shows the highest diversity (50.96%) of edible plants and East Himalaya the maximum number of endemics (18 taxa) and wild relatives of economic plants (39 taxa). Mass scale propagation, dissemination of information packages to local inhabitants to ensure that wild edibles remain as a resource for income generation, and strategies for conservation and management are recommended.     

Volume and financial value of species traded in the medicinal plant markets of Gauteng,South Africa

The demand for traditional medicinal plants and products in South Africa has created an extensive cross-border industry involving thousands of harvesters and traders. The market values of individual taxa vary considerably. Pricing structures fluctuate between markets and over time as the cost of harvesting species varies depending on a gatherer's access to the resources and the proximity of markets to the harvesting sites. This paper estimates trade values, describes the prices paid for 22 plant resources, investigates pricing structures relative to the mass/volume sold and the factors that influence the market price for plants. There is an inverse and disproportionate relationship between the price per kilogram (R/kg) and mass of the product sold. The smaller the quantity sold, the higher the R/kg sale values are relative to sales of larger quantities. This relationship is evident in different plant part types (e.g. bark and bulbs), species and markets (shops and street markets). Given the high mass sold relative to the price, bulbs, like bark, have the lowest R/kg values compared to other products like roots, fruits and leaves. The prices paid for heavier/denser species is thus disproportionate to the mass sold. If the relative values are used as an indicator of plant vulnerability (assuming high values indicate greater vulnerability), then bias is created in favour of 'lighter' and less dense plant parts typically sold in small quantities because of the nature of the plant part and the manner in which it is marketed and required by customers.     

Comparative Analysis of Management Regimes and Medicinal Plant Trade Monitoring Mechanisms for American Ginseng and Goldenseal

Abstract: Two popular and profitable native North American medicinal plants, American ginseng (    Panax quinquefolius ) and goldenseal (   Hydrastis canadensis ), both of which are listed in Appendix 2 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), are monitored under disparate domestic strategies that are designed to satisfy CITES requirements. The P. quinquefolius program has benefited the species by encouraging U.S. states to enact laws to protect wild populations and regulate collection, and by establishing a transparent system under which harvest, commerce, and export can be monitored, evaluated, and controlled routinely. But certain programmatic constraints, such as insufficient funding and gaps in biological monitoring, undermine its effectiveness as a management strategy for the species. The joint industry and government H. canadensis initiative is intended to give commercial traders more responsibility in monitoring plant trade and the federal government access to information that may otherwise be difficult to obtain without the help of traders. I examined the structure, successes, and deficiencies of the P. quinquefolius program, promising features of the evolving H. canadensis program, Turkey's management of geophytes, and other sources of information from federal agencies that might contribute to more effective management of medicinal plants in the United States. Although the main goal of domestic monitoring programs for P. quinquefolius and H. canadensis is to implement their CITES listings, it is conceivable that similar programs could be established for non–CITES medicinal plants, thereby minimizing or replacing the need for CITES protection.