东莞市蔬菜重金属污染状况研究

人类活动对土壤造成的影响越来越严重,特别是土壤重金属污染,通过食物链转移,对人体健康造成极大危害。通过对东莞市主要蔬菜生产基地的11种蔬菜48个样品的可食部分的重金属含量测试,得出了2大类11种蔬菜中Pb、Cu、Zn、Cd、Cr、As、Hg、Ni等八种重金属的含量。发现Pb对该地区蔬菜的污染较普遍,超标率达到了20.9%,最高检出值为标准的2.2倍,其次是Cd、Hg,超标率分别为11.6%和2.3%。研究发现重金属元素含量超标的蔬菜均为叶菜类蔬菜,其中菠菜有四种重金属元素的含量在各品种蔬菜中最高。     

铅锌矿区农田土壤重金属有效态空间分布及其影响因子分析

利用地统计学方法,研究了广西岩溶地区某铅锌矿区农田土壤中Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu四种重金属有效态含量的空间分布特征及其影响因子.结果表明:研究区域不同程度地受到Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu的污染,且水田污染较旱地严重;与广西土壤背景值相比,污染程度最严重的是Cd,在水田和旱地中超标率均为100%,平均超标倍数分别为312.94和33.67;其次是Zn,在水田和早地中超标率分别为100%和34%,平均超标倍数分别为38.34和2.11;污染最轻的为Cu,超标率仅为7%.空间分析表明,有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu的块金系数分别为2.7%、0.2%、6.5%、0.13%,体现了强烈的空间自相关性,且四种重金属空间分布特征相似,在离原铅锌选矿厂较近的西北偏西面有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu含量最高,沿着西北偏西至东南偏东的灌溉渠流向,有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu的含量呈递减趋势,东部旱地有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu含量相对较低.土壤有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu在污染区的空间分布与土壤基本理化性质关系密切,有效态Cd、Zn、Pb、Cu与pH、阳离子交换量、粘粒都呈极显著负相关,与有机质含量则呈极显著正相关.     

京北城区公路绿化带土壤重金属污染

为了解北京市公路绿化带土壤的环境质量,对北部城区环线公路附近不同植被类型土壤重金属的含量和污染指数进行了分析。研究表明:土壤Zn和Pb在不同公路绿化带中的分布极不均匀,变异系数分别达到了108.79%和99.56%。北二环路公路带土壤Pb、Cu、Zn、Ni、Mn、Co的含量均显著高于北五环区域土壤的重金属含量,而北四环和北五环各土壤重金属含量无显著差异。不同土壤重金属种类的污染程度不同,土壤中的Pb处于清洁水平,Cr和Cu处于轻度污染水平,Zn和Co处于中度污染水平,而Ni和Mn处于警戒限水平。综合来看,土壤重金属的综合污染指数为1.81,土壤环境质量达到了轻度污染的程度。     

农田土壤重金属污染评价方法研究--以长江三角洲典型县级市常熟市为例

在工业化、现代化过程中,经济发达地区土壤污染是一个十分值得重视的问题,如何合理、恰当地对这些地区的土壤环境质量进行评价也是众所关注和值得探讨的。为此,以长江三角洲典型县级市常熟市为研究对象,在探讨土壤环境背景值的含义、确定方法、评价标准的基础上,通过田间采样和室内分析,对常熟市土壤重金属含量进行调查,并以当地土壤环境背景值上限值和GB 15618—1995土壤环境质量标准二级标准值为评价标准,分别对该市土壤重金属中7种重金属元素(Cd、Hg、As、Pb、Cr、Cu和Zn)污染状况进行评价。结果表明,以当地土壤环境背景值上限值为标准进行评价,7种重金属均有超过背景值现象,其中以Hg、Pb、Cr、Cu和Zn问题较多,超标率达13.6%~20.4%。而以GB 15618—1995土壤环境质量标准二级标准值进行评价,则Cd、Pb、Cu和Zn均有超标,Hg有30.6%的土壤样品超标,As、Cr不超标。因此认为采用双重标准进行土壤环境污染状况的评价,可以较全面地了解当地土壤污染状况。     

电子废物不当处置的重金属污染及其环境风险评价 Ⅱ．分布于人居环境（村镇）内的电子废物拆解作坊及其附近农田的土壤重金属污染

电子废物拆解活动一般集中于村镇内靠近人居环境的区域,其污染对当地居民身体健康的影响最为直接.为了了解电子废物拆解活动所造成的重金属污染,对广东省清远市龙塘镇、石角镇内电子废物拆解作坊共29个表土样本以及附近农田33个土壤样本进行了取样,并分析了重金属Zn、Cu、Pb和Cd含量.结果表明,龙塘镇电子废物拆解作坊表土中4种重金属的总含量平均值高达11086mg·kg-1,远高于电子废物焚烧迹地,其中Zn、Cu、Pb和Cd平均含量分别为3039.6、6371.5、1635.4和39.3mg·kg-1.从事电子废物拆解业历史较短的石角镇的拆解作坊表土中,4种重金属总含量和各金属平均含量均低于龙塘镇,显示出拆解历史越长,污染越严重的倾向.与焚烧工序相比,拆解工序中的Zn、Cd污染更为严重,Cu污染相近,Pb污染相对较低.在拆解作坊附近33个农田土壤样本中,Zn含量不超标,Cd含量超标最严重,超标率为78.8%,最大超标倍数达25.7倍,其次是Cu,超标率为63.7%,最大超标倍数达6.3倍,再次为Pb,超标率为48.5%,最大超标倍数为2.1倍.4种重金属的综合超标率达到81.8%.农田土壤中4种重金属与拆解作坊表土中重金属具有一定的同源性,并表现出共迁移特征.由此可见,研究地区大规模的电子废物拆解活动已对当地居民造成了严重的健康风险。     

某污灌区土壤与蔬菜重金属污染状况及健康风险评价

对安徽蚌埠某污灌区的土壤及蔬菜进行取样调查,分别测定其重金属As、Pb、Cr、Cd和Hg含量,利用单因子污染指数和内梅罗综合污染指数评价污灌区土壤及蔬菜的污染状况,并结合EPA MMSOILS模型评价了当地食用蔬菜对人体造成的健康风险。结果表明,研究区土壤中As、Pb、Cr、Cd和Hg含量平均值分别为4.182、3.685、1.397、0.381和0.151 mg·kg-1,与GB 15618—1995《土壤环境质量标准》中的Ⅱ级标准(pH值为6.5~7.5)相比,Cd含量超标,其单因子污染指数为1.27。土壤内梅罗综合污染指数为0.931,表明土壤污染情况已处于警戒范围内,主要因素是Cd污染。蔬菜中各重金属含量符合GB 2762—2012《食品中污染物限量》,各重金属含量由高到低分别为Pb、As、Cr、Cd和Hg。食用蔬菜中Pb、Cd、Hg和Cr对人体造成的健康风险均较低,风险指数分别为0.40、0.07、0.12和0.06,而As的风险指数达1.12,暴露风险较大。     

大冶矿区土壤-蔬菜重金属污染特征及健康风险评价

对大冶铜绿山、铜山口矿区和非矿区的土壤、蔬菜重金属污染特征进行了分析,利用单因子污染指数及内梅罗综合污染指数法评价了土壤环境质量,并进一步分析了蔬菜重金属暴露接触对当地居民的健康风险.结果表明,矿区附近蔬菜地土壤均受到不同程度上的重金属污染,尤其是Cu和Cd的污染.非矿区蔬菜地土壤受到重金属的中度污染,主要是Cd污染.矿区蔬菜中Pb和Cd的含量均超过中国食品安全卫生标准,非矿区部分蔬菜中Pb和Cd的含量超标.矿区居民食用各种蔬菜均会产生Pb和Cd的健康风险.青少年儿童食用蔬菜比成年人更易受到重金属的危害.     

长期污灌条件下农田土壤重金属污染环境风险评价

为探讨长期污灌条件下农田土壤重金属积累状况及环境风险,选取典型污灌河流汪洋沟沿岸农田作为研究对象,对污灌区土壤和小麦植株中重金属Cd、Pb、Cu和Zn含量进行分析,并对重金属污染现状、潜在生态风险和潜在健康风险进行评价.结果表明,污灌土壤中Cd、Pb、Cu、和Zn含量虽未超过国家标准限值,但均高于清灌土壤和上壤背景值,已表现出积累现象.污灌小麦部分样本Pb和Zn含量超标,超标率分别为23.1％和15.4％.Cd、Pb、Cu和Zn 4种重金属污染等级均为安全,说明重金属含量尚未达到警戒水平.潜在生态风险评价结果显示,Cd的生态危害系数最高,表现出中等生态危害程度;Pb、Cu和Zn表现为轻微潜在生态危害.健康风险评价显示,4种重金属的单一健康风险系数均未达到显著水平,但其综合污染风险指数大于1,说明该地区存在一定的潜在健康风险,且重金属对儿童的健康风险大于成人,应引起足够重视.     

有色矿业区耕作土壤、蔬菜和大米中重金属污染

有色金属矿业区周边土壤重金属污染严重,对我国生态环境质量、食品安全和人体健康构成了一定威胁,研究典型矿业区周边复合污染地带的土壤环境质量及其食物安全对促进其可持续发展具有深远的意义。从湖南省的长沙、株洲、衡阳、郴州等有色金属矿业区收集耕作土壤、蔬菜和大米样品,结合主成分分析、聚类分析和相关分析,研究其中重金属元素的累积和迁移特征,评估蔬菜和大米中重金属元素对人体健康的潜在危害程度。研究结果表明,耕作土壤中主要重金属污染元素为Cd、As、Pb、Cu、Zn等;主成分分析表明,菜地土中第一主成分主要反映了Pb、Zn、Cd、As的复合污染信息以及与土壤pH的相关关系;水稻土中第一主成分主要反映了Cu、Zn、Pb、Cd的复合污染信息;聚类分析进一步阐明耕作土壤以Cd、Pb、As、Cu、Zn为主的复合污染特征。研究区蔬菜中Cd、Pb、As、Cu、Zn、Cr含量,大米中Cd、Pb和Zn含量均明显超过我国食品卫生标准;蔬菜中Cd、Pb、As和大米中Cd、Pb对人体健康的潜在危害较大。     

湖南某植烟土壤重金属含量及其生态风险评价

采集了湖南某植烟区表层土壤样品112份,测定了土壤中6种重金属元素的含量,并采用单因子污染指数法、综合污染指数法和潜在生态危害指数法对其污染状况进行评价.结果表明,植烟区土壤重金属平均含量分别为36.25(Cu)、69.78(Zn)、37.66(Pb)、0.36(Cd)、12.71(As)、0.27(Hg)mg·kg-1.6个元素的变异系数在32.57%—59.03%之间,属于中等变异,元素分布不均.污染评价结果表明,植烟区土壤重金属Cu、Zn、Pb、As的单因子污染指数平均值小于1,其污染较轻.而重金属Cd和Hg的超标率为54.46%和58.04%,土壤受到Cd和Hg污染.潜在生态风险指数评价结果显示植烟区土壤重金属属于轻度污染.相关性分析结果表明Cu、Zn、Pb和Cd之间呈显著相关性,As和Hg相关性显著,说明其同源性较高.来源分析表明,研究区Cu、Zn、Pb和Cd污染来源东北部主要为矿区污染,西南部主要是人为源,As主要来源为成土母质和生活源,Hg主要为大气污染源.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.