五大连池火山蒙古栎种群空间分布格局

种群空间格局研究是深入认识种群生态学功能和过程的有效途径,研究森林群落优势种群空间分布格局可为阐明其种群的生态特征和群落演替趋势提供参考依据。以五大连池4座老期火山南坡蒙古栎(Quercus mongolica)种群为研究对象,采用多尺度、多指数综合判定方法,分析不分龄级和不同龄级蒙古栎种群随空间尺度变化的空间分布特征。研究表明：(1)4座火山蒙古栎种群空间分布格局随空间尺度变化而不同,不分龄级种群在200 m²和400 m²尺度上以集群分布为主,但集群强度存在明显差异;龄级Ⅴ种群在25 m²和50 m²尺度上集群分布显著,而龄级Ⅶ种群在200 m²和400 m²尺度上集群分布显著。(2)4座火山蒙古栎种群空间分布格局均具有明显尺度效应,6个判别指数随尺度增大呈不同变化趋势,4座火山蒙古栎不分龄级种群呈幂函数递增趋势(46%)最多,龄级Ⅶ种群呈幂函数递增趋势的高达50%。(3)4座火山蒙古栎种群格局规模不同,不分龄级种群只有东焦得布山均方值在200 m     

玄武湖菹草种群空间格局分析及其环境效应

大型水生植物的分布格局与空间尺度有着密切关系,传统的分析方法只能分析一种尺度下的格局。引入点格局分析,以种群空间分布坐标点图为基础,分析各种尺度下的种群格局。运用点格局分析对玄武湖菹草种群的空间分布格局进行研究,并结合N、P等水质指标探讨其环境效应。结果表明,玄武湖菹草种群分布集群特征明显,且在尺度232~344m内聚集最为明显。从水质监测结果看,菹草种群有利于改善水体环境,无种群区的TN、TP和NO3-N浓度明显高于有种群区;溶解氧(DO)则表现为有种群区高于无种群区。菹草在空间分布上的明显规律性,会进一步导致水质参数的空间异质性。     

北京山区典型流域不同海拔椴树种群的空间点格局分析

采用点格局分析法对不同海拔的椴树(Tilia miqueliana Maxim.)种群进行分布格局及其种间关系进行了研究。结果表明:整体上群落内以中龄树个体数为最多,小树次之,成年树个体最少。随着海拔的增加可以看出:小树(d≤5 cm)随着海拔的增加而减少,中树(5 cm20 cm)的规律不明显;椴树种群的空间分布格局与空间尺度(25 m内)有密切关系,在较小的空间尺度上倾向于非随机分布,具有明显的空间相关性;在>15 m或25m的某临界尺度时却倾向于随机分布,同时空间关联变得微弱。随着海拔的增加,各物种聚集分布的尺度有逐渐减小的趋势。种间关系随着海拔的增加,物种间的正相关尺度有增加的趋势。     

北京山区典型流域不同海拔椴树种群的空间点格局分析

采用点格局分析法对不同海拔的椴树（Tilia miqueliana Maxim.）种群进行分布格局及其种间关系进行了研究。结果表明：整体上群落内以中龄树个体数为最多,小树次之,成年树个体最少。随着海拔的增加可以看出：小树（d≤5 cm）随着海拔的增加而减少,中树（5 cm20 cm）的规律不明显;椴树种群的空间分布格局与空间尺度（25 m内）有密切关系,在较小的空间尺度上倾向于非随机分布,具有明显的空间相关性;在〉15 m或25m的某临界尺度时却倾向于随机分布,同时空间关联变得微弱。随着海拔的增加,各物种聚集分布的尺度有逐渐减小的趋势。种间关系随着海拔的增加,物种间的正相关尺度有增加的趋势。     

福建梅花山国家级自然保护区拟赤杨种群分布格局的分形分析

分形理论中的计盒维数、信息维数和关联维数能分别从空间占据程度、格局强度和个体空间关联的尺度变化角度,揭示种群分布格局的尺度变化特征.本文应用以上3个分形维数探讨了福建梅花山国家级自然保护区拟赤杨种群分布格局的多尺度分布规律,计算结果表明,拟赤杨种群的分布格局具有分形特征,其计盒维数为1.0298～1.2982,信息维数为0.9728～1.2464,关联维数为0.5089～0.8047.拟赤杨种群的计盒维数、信息维数较高,而关联维数较小,表明该种群的分布格局强度相对较高,结构相对复杂,具有集聚分布的趋势.     

放牧强度对川西北高寒草甸植物生物量及其分配的影响

研究了四川省红原县境内4个不同放牧强度下高寒草甸植物群落的物种组成、生物量及其分配特征.随放牧强度的增加,植物群落表现出由垂穗鹅冠草(Roegnerianutans)和垂穗披碱草(Elymusnutans)等禾草为优势种的群落向以川嵩草(Kobresiasetchwanensis)和高山嵩草(Kobresiapygmaea)等莎草为优势种的群落演替的趋势.生长季节6-9月,草甸植物地上生物量以不放牧为最高,重度放牧显著小于不放牧;地下生物量随放牧强度的增加而呈增加趋势,重度和中度放牧显著高于不放牧和轻度放牧.不放牧、轻度、中度和重度放牧草地6-9月4个月植物总生物量平均值分别为1543.3、1621.6、2294.7和2448.5g·m-2,地下生物量占总生物量比例大小排序为重牧(87.8%)＞中牧(81.8%)＞轻牧(76.2%)＞不放牧(69.2%).草甸植物生物量的变化主要是由于放牧作用下植物群落优势种的变化而引起的,其分配比例的变化反映了草甸植物对放牧干扰的适应.     

抚育间伐对栓皮栎种群空间分布格局的影响

抚育间伐是一种重要的改善林木生长条件的经营措施,对林分结构和动态具有重要影响。为研究抚育间伐对林木种群空间结构与格局影响的内在机制,以间伐和未间伐的栓皮栎人工林为研究对象,通过设置2个100 m×100 m样地并进行每木定位和调查,在采用径级结构代替年龄结构方法将栓皮栎种群划分为幼树(2 cm≤DBH<5 cm)、小树(5 cm≤DBH<13 cm)和大树(DBH≥13 cm)3个生长阶段的基础上,分别采用Ripley’s K函数衍生的g(r)函数和双变量g12(r)函数,对栓皮栎种群空间分布点格局及不同生长阶段栓皮栎种群之间的关联性进行了研究。结果表明,间伐和未间伐样地栓皮栎种群空间分布点格局分别在0-16 m和0-33 m距离尺度内呈聚集分布,而分别在大于16 m和33 m距离尺度内呈随机分布;间伐和未间伐样地栓皮栎幼树、小树和大树的株数比分别为8?741?699和261?1134?683,且间伐样地栓皮栎幼树、小树和大树种群分别在0-14、1-16、0-6 m距离尺度内呈现均匀或聚集分布,而在其他距离尺度上表现为随机分布;栓皮栎幼树、小树和大树之间仅在间伐样地0-6 m距离尺度内呈现一定的相关性,而在未间伐样地更大的距离尺度内有显著的关联性,如栓皮栎幼树和大树之间在6-38 m距离尺度上呈显著正相关。因此,抚育间伐一定程度上使得栓皮栎种群在更大距离尺度上呈现出随机分布状态,并弱化了不同生长阶段的林木栓皮栎种群的关联性,这调整了栓皮栎种群空间竞争关系,有利于大径级林木个体的培育。该研究可以为开展抚育间伐对林木种群的影响的研究提供理论依据,也可以为制定科学合理的抚育技术措施提供参考。     

短花针茅荒漠草原不同组织尺度地上生物量北大核心CSCD

以内蒙古短花针茅荒漠草地生物量为研究对象,比较分析个体、种群、功能群、群落尺度地上生物量的关联与变异.结果显示:(1)个体尺度上,高产草地的兴安胡枝子生物量最大,为(22.96±7.31)g/株,羊草生物量最小,为(0.16±0.69)g/株;种群尺度上,兴安胡枝子生物量较小,羊草的生物量较大;在功能群尺度上,兴安胡枝子生物量在灌木、半灌木该功能群的权重值为0.144,羊草的生物量在多年生禾草的权重值为0.303.(2)种群尺度上短花针茅在低产草地生物量最高(80.33 g/m2±5.15 g/m2),在个体尺度生物量同样最高(6.99 g/株±0.68 g/株);蒙古葱在种群尺度下生物量最低(0.12 g/m2±0.10 g/m2),在个体尺度下也最低(0.01 g/株±0.05 g/株).(3)高产草地的变异系数均值几乎都大于低产草地的变异系数均值,且随个体、种群、功能群、群落尺度的递进呈现下降趋势.本研究表明,从植物不同组织尺度研究短花针茅荒漠草原地上生物量,能够更好地揭示群落生物量置配过程和资源利用,这对于不同地区物种潜在规律的比较以及科学地实施区域生态系统保护具有重要意义.     

岷江上游林草交错带祁连山圆柏群落的物种多样性及乔木种群的分布格局

应用5种多样性指数对祁连山圆柏群落的物种多样性进行了研究，并采用相邻格子样方法测定了乔木种群及其各立木级的分布格局．结果表明，灌木层的物种多样性偏低，而草本层多样性较高，群落总的物种多样性(以丰富度表示)较高．群落总的物种多样性较高是由于较低的灌木层多样性与较高的草本层多样性综合作用的结果，与放牧影响、阳坡的干燥环境有关，可能是林草交错区固有的特点．乔木种群的分布格局呈现出集群分布，但在其发育过程中显示了动态变化的特征，即在幼苗和小树阶段为集群分布，到了大树阶段转变为随机分布或均匀分布．表6参32     

放牧对短花针茅荒漠草原建群种与土壤团聚体特征的影响

以内蒙古农业大学苏尼特右旗荒漠草原的放牧调控实验为平台,通过分析荒漠草原建群种种群结构及土壤团聚体特征,揭示放牧调控下荒漠草原短花针茅(Stipa breviflora)与沉积土壤的潜在联系。结果显示:(1)短花针茅幼龄与成年植株密度显著大于幼苗、老龄前期、老龄期密度;各年龄短花针茅种群密度、生物量均呈现重度放牧处理最高、适度放牧次之、重度放牧最低的规律;(2)短花针茅荒漠草原土壤团聚体分布受团聚体粒径及其与放牧强度的交互作用影响(P0.05);同一放牧处理中,100~250μm植物沉积团聚体含量最高,50μm与50~100μm团聚体含量次之、500μm团聚体含量最小;而裸地土壤团聚体以50μm团聚体含量最高;(3)50μm裸地土壤团聚体含量与50μm植物沉积土壤团聚体含量呈正相关(P0.05),而50μm植物沉积土壤团聚体含量与各年龄短花针茅种群密度、生物量呈负相关,各100μm植物沉积土壤团聚体含量与各年龄短花针茅种群密度、生物量呈正相关。研究认为,放牧降低了各年龄短花针茅种群密度和生物量,削弱了荒漠草地抵抗风蚀和沉降风沙的能力,降低了短花针茅改善基部土壤结构的生态功能,这可能是放牧草地退化过程的重要机制之一。     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.