Insect mandibles—comparative mechanical properties and links with metal incorporation

A number of arthropod taxa contain metals in their mandibles (jaws), such as zinc, manganese, iron, and calcium. The occurrence of zinc and its co-located halogen chlorine have been studied in relation to the mechanical properties and shown to be linked in a direct fashion with increasing concentration. Hardness along with elastic modulus (stiffness) has also been linked to zinc and halogen concentration in some marine polychaete worms. The metal appears to be incorporated within the biological matrix, possibly bonding with proteins. However, the comparative advantage of metal inclusion has not been tested. It is possible that without metals, alternative mechanisms are used to achieve hardness of equal value in similar 'tools' such as mandibles. This question has direct bearing on the significance of metal hardening. In the present article, we compare across mandibles from six termite species, including samples with major zinc concentration, minor manganese, and no metals. Nanoindentation, electron microscopy, and electron microanalysis are used to assess metal concentration, form, and mechanical properties. The data demonstrate that termite mandibles lacking metals when fully developed have lower values for hardness and elastic modulus. Zinc is linked to a relative 20% increase in hardness when compared with mandibles devoid of metals. The similar transition metal, manganese, found in minor concentrations, is not linked to any significant increase in these mechanical properties. This raises the question of the function of manganese, which is as commonly found in insect mandibles as zinc and often located in the same mandibles.     

Mandibular morphogenesis during soldier differentiation in the damp-wood termite<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Hodotermopsis sjoestedti</Emphasis> (Isoptera: Termopsidae)

The conspicuous morphogenesis during termite soldier differentiation is one of the most remarkable examples of specialized caste development in social insects. To clarify the mechanism of morphological changes during soldier differentiation, mandibular morphogenesis prior to the presoldier moult was examined in the damp-wood termite Hodotermopsis sjoestedti. Using experimental induction of presoldier differentiation from pseudergates (7th or later instar larvae) by the application of juvenile hormone analogue (JHA), we compared mandibular morphogenesis in a presoldier moult (from pseudergate to presoldier) with that of a stationary moult (from pseudergate to pseudergate). Future presoldier mandibles were formed under the old mandibular cuticle of the pseudergates just prior to the presoldier moult. Multiple folds of both epidermis and new cuticle were observed in the developing mandible, and large concavities between teeth were formed on the mandibular surface. While in the stationary moult, the future mandibles were formed with a smooth surface. The process of the mandibular morphogenesis in soldier differentiation explains the allometry of soldier mandibles. The morphological differences in mouth parts between castes arise from a switching mechanism that triggers caste-specific mandibular epithelial growth during development.     

The frontal gland in workers of Neotropical soldierless termites

The presence of the frontal gland is well established in termite soldiers of Rhinotermitidae, Serritermitidae, and Termitidae. It is one of their main defensive adaptations or even an exclusive weapon. The gland was also occasionally reported in alate imagoes, but never in the worker caste. Here, we report the first observation of a frontal gland in workers of several Neotropical and one African species of Apicotermitinae. The ultrastructure of Aparatermes cingulatus and Anoplotermes nr. subterraneus is described in detail. In these two species, the gland is well-developed, functional and consists of class 1 secretory cells. The presence of envelope cells, wrapping the gland, is an unusual feature, as well as the presence of several zonulae adherens, connecting neighbouring glandular cells. The frontal gland of workers is homologous to this organ in soldiers and imagoes, as evidenced by the same position in the head and its connection to the same muscle. However, the defensive role of the frontal gland in workers remains to be confirmed.     

Scent of a queen—cuticular hydrocarbons specific for female reproductives in lower termites

In social insects, it is assumed that signals of the queen inform nestmates about her reproductive status. Thus, workers forego their own reproduction if the queen signals high fertility. In hemimetabolous termites, little is known about reproductive inhibition, but evidence exists for a royal-pair control. Workers of lower termites exhibit a high developmental flexibility and are potentially able to become reproductives, but the presence of a fertile reproductive restrains them from reaching sexual maturity. The nature of this control, however, remains unknown. Here, we report on qualitative differences in cuticular hydrocarbon profiles between queens and workers of the basal drywood termite Cryptotermes secundus. Queens were characterized by a shift to long-chained and branched hydrocarbons. Most remarkably, similar chemical patterns are regarded as fertility cues of reproductives in social Hymenoptera. This might suggest that both groups of social insects convergently evolved similar chemical signatures. The present study provides deeper insights into how termites might have socially exploited these signatures from sexual communication in their cockroach-like ancestor. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Extended mutualism between termites and gut microbes: nutritional symbionts contribute to nest hygiene

All higher eukaryotes have established symbiotic relationships with diverse microorganisms. One of the most well-characterized symbiotic systems is that of termites and their intestinal microorganisms, which digest cellulose. Recently, diverse types of symbioses between gut microbes and host organisms including humans have received growing attention for various features of their complex interactions beyond nutrition. In termites, researchers are beginning to explore such function of gut symbionts, but only the contribution to internal immunity against entomopathogen is known in a few species. Here, we report that gut symbionts of the dampwood termite Zootermopsis nevadensis protect nests from the spread of the commensal bacterium Serratia marcescens, which has pathogenic potential. Defaunated termites dispersed S. marcescens in the surrounding environment by feeding on the bacteria, which then survived passage through their alimentary tracts, while non-defaunated termites did not. Loss of gut symbionts caused a significant reduction in intestinal acetate, which is an important carbon source for termites. Culture experiments showed that acetate had significant inhibitory effects on S. marcescens at a concentration as low as 12 mM, which indicated that the intestinal acetate of non-defaunated termites (40–130 mM) was capable of suppressing this bacterium. These results suggest that digestive derivatives produced by intestinal symbionts play an essential role in nest hygiene in addition to their nutritional function for termites. Our study provides a better understanding of the multifunctionality of symbiotic relationships in diverse organisms beyond nutrition.     

湖南采矿区和冶炼区水稻土重金属污染及其潜在风险评价

对湖南省9个县市采矿区和冶炼区附近的水稻土中重金属Cd、As、Cu、Zn和Pb进行了调查和分析.结果表明,采矿区和冶炼区周围的水稻土中重金属Cd、As、Cu、Zn和Pb的含量呈对数正态分布.单因子污染指数法评价表明,在所调查的区域中,有6个县市矿区和冶炼区附近的水稻土受到Cd的严重污染,其它地区的水稻土分别受到Cd、As、Cu、Zn和Pb不同程度的污染,其中衡阳常宁市水口山铅锌矿区和株洲清水塘冶炼区附近的水稻土受到重金属的严重污染.潜在风险评价表明,采矿区和冶炼区周围的水稻土中Cd潜在风险参数最高,其次是Pb和As.衡阳常宁水口山铅锌矿、株洲清水塘冶炼区、娄底冷水江锡矿和湘潭锰矿附近的水稻土中重金属的潜在生态风险参数很高,具有很高潜在风险程度;永州道县冶炼区水稻土中重金属的潜在生态风险程度为较高程度;郴州柿竹园铅锌矿.常德石门雄磺矿、益阳赫山区金矿区和岳阳临湘铅锌矿区附近的水稻土的重金属潜在生态风险为中等程度.     

Regulation of sexual development in the basal termite Cryptotermes secundus: mutilation, pheromonal manipulation or honest signal?

Social insect colonies are not the harmonious entities they were once considered. Considerable conflicts exist between colony members, as has been shown for Hymenoptera. For termites, similar studies are lacking, but aggressive manipulations have been claimed to regulate sexual development, and even to account for the evolution of workers. This study on a basal termite, Cryptotermes secundus (Kalotermitidae), suggests that the importance of aggressive manipulations in termites has been overemphasized. Wing-bud mutilations, a means proposed to regulate the development of dispersing sexuals (alates), seem to be artifacts of handling conditions that cause disturbance. Aggressive behaviors never occurred unless colonies were disturbed. Theoretical considerations further showed that the potential for intense conflict among termite nestmates is low compared to hymenopteran societies. Strong conflicts are only expected to occur over the replacement of natal reproductives that died, while less intense conflicts should exist over the development into alates when food in the colony becomes limiting. Accordingly, intracolonial aggressive interactions over replacement are common, whereas nestmates seem to manipulate alate development via proctodeal feeding when food resources decline. However, the latter is rather an honest signal than a manipulation because only the most competent prospective dispersers can impede the development of nestmates.     

Resource competition between two fungal parasites in subterranean termites

Subterranean termites live in large groups in underground nests where the pathogenic pressure of the soil environment has led to the evolution of a complex interaction among individual and social immune mechanisms in the colonies. However, groups of termites under stress can show increased susceptibility to opportunistic parasites. In this study, an isolate of Aspergillus nomius Kurtzman, Horn & Hessltine was obtained from a collapsed termite laboratory colony. We determined that it was primarily a saprophyte and, secondarily, a facultative parasite if the termite immunity is undergoing a form of stress. This was determined by stressing individuals of the Formosan subterranean termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki via a co-exposure to the virulent fungal parasite Metarhizium anisopliae (Metch.) Sorokin. We also examined the dynamics of a mixed infection of A. nomius and M. anisopliae in a single termite host. The virulent parasite M. anisopliae debilitated the termite immune system, but the facultative, fast growing parasite A. nomius dominated the mixed infection process. The resource utilization strategy of A. nomius during the infection resulted in successful conidia production, while the chance for M. anisopliae to complete its life cycle was reduced. Our results also suggest that the occurrence of opportunistic parasites such as A. nomius in collapsing termite laboratory colonies is the consequence of a previous stress, not the cause of the stress.     

土壤中重金属镉锌铅复合污染的研究

采用吸附与解吸实验及盆栽试验，研究了在重金属镉、锌、铅复合污染条件下，棕壤对重金属的吸附、解吸规律，以及菠菜吸收重金属的特点。结果表明：棕壤对铅、锌的吸附分别符合Ｌａｎｇｍｕｉｒ、Ｆｒｅｕｎｄｌｉｃｈ方程，对镉的吸附用Ｌａｎｇｍｕｉｒ、Ｆｒｅｕｎｄｌｉｃｈ及Ｔｅｍｋｉｎ方程回归都不显。重金属被吸附后的解吸率顺序为：Ｚｎ〉Ｃｄ〉Ｐｂ。Ｐｂ＾２＋与吸附位结合的牢固程度较单一污染时大，而Ｃｄ＾２＋和Ｚ     

小南湖水体中铜锰锌镉的迁移和积累特性

以杭州西湖的子湖（小南湖）的水生生态环境为研究对象，同步分析了水和底泥中重金属的形态分布，以及软体动物和水生植物的重金属的含量，揭示了Ｃｕ、Ｚｎ、Ｃｄ的积累、迁移和转化规律，结果表明：（１）水相中Ｃｕ、Ｚｎ、Ｃｄ主要以溶解态存在，Ｍｎ主要以颗粒态Ｉ存在；底泥中，Ｃｕ主要以有机结合态，Ｍｎ以铁锰氧化结合态，Ｃｄ以碳酸盐态、Ｚｎ以铁锰氧化结合态存在，在水和底泥中，重金属总量次序分别为：Ｚｎ〉Ｍｎ〉Ｃｕ     

杭州市大气降尘与PM10化学组成特征的研究

2006年6月~2008年5月,在杭州市采集了大气降尘和PM10样品以及3类PM10源样品,对样品中12种无机元素进行了分析.结果表明,杭州市大气降尘量与PM10浓度相对于国内其他城市均属于较低水平,二者的季节变化存在明显差异;降尘量和PM10浓度的空间分布特征存在相似性,均与人类活动的强度密切相关.空间分布显示除PM10在朝晖和玉泉两采样点的成分谱相似,各采样点降尘和PM10成分谱间的相似性均不高.PM10与各源类成分谱的相似性高于降尘与各源类成分谱的相似性,二者来源的差异可能是造成降尘和PM10化学组分特征不同的原因,其中PM10与城市扬尘的化学成分相似性最高.     

环境修复中锰氧化物与变价重金属交互作用的研究进展

氧化-还原过程是影响重金属环境行为的重要过程.锰氧化物作为重要的天然氧化剂,通过对变价重金属的氧化还原和吸附作用,影响着其在环境中的形态、生物有效性乃至归趋,具有很高的环境修复潜力和应用价值.近年来对锰氧化物和变价重金属元素的研究主要集中在以下几个方面:生物氧化锰的形成与多铜氧化酶体系的关系;锰氧化物与变价重金属的交互作用的机制及其影响因素,尤其锰氧化物的空间结构和作用位点的影响.目前,锰氧化物在环境修复中的应用主要集中在水环境修复方面,土壤体系及土壤微界面还很鲜见.同时土壤体系中影响锰氧化物与重金属交互作用的因素更多,其过程也更为复杂.本文通过总结锰氧化物与变价重金属交互作用的研究进展,对比不同重金属种类之间反应机制的差别,为更好的理解锰氧化物的环境作用提供基础,也期望能够进一步拓展其在污染环境的修复中的应用范围.     

Leaching of metals on stabilization of metal sludge using cement based materials

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure(TCLP) of zinc plating sludge was carried out to assess the leaching potential of the sludge and the leachates were analyzed for heavy metals. The concentration of zinc, chromium, and lead in the leachate were 371.5 mg/L, 1.95 mg/L and 1.99 mg/L respectively. Solidification of zinc sludge was carried out using four different binder systems consisting of cement mortar, fly ash, clay and lime and cured for 28 d, The ratio of sludge added varied from 60% to 80% by volume. The solidified products were tested for metal fixing efficiency and physical strength. It was observed that the volume of sludge added that resulted in maximum metal stabilization was 60% for all the combinations, above which the metal fixation efficiency decreased resulting in high values of zinc in the leachate. Addition of 5% sodium silicate enhanced the chemical fixation of metals in all the binder systems. Among the four fixing agents studied, mixture of fly ash: lime, and cement mortar: lime stabilized zinc and other metals in the sludge effectively than other combinations. Addition of lime increased the stabilization of zinc whereas cement mortar increased the strength of the solidified product.     

有机酸对污染底泥中Zn和Pb浸出的影响

采用2种污染底泥,比较研究3种低分子有机酸及pH值对底泥中重金属Zn和Pb浸出的影响.结果表明,3种低分子有机酸对供试底泥中Zn和Pb都具有浸出作用,有机酸对Zn的浸出能力大小为:柠檬酸>苹果酸>酒石酸;对Pb浸出能力大小为:柠檬酸>酒石酸>苹果酸.Zn、Pb的浸出浓度随有机酸浓度的升高和pH值的降低而增加,有机酸对重金属的浸出能力大于无机盐.在有机酸条件下,底泥中重金属的浸出能力为:Zn>Pb.     

柠檬酸浸出废弃电池材料中镍钴锰金属的研究

随着锂离子电池使用领域和范围越来越广泛,其产销量日益增长,由此产生的废旧锂离子电池的回收处理问题也日趋严重.如何提高废旧电池中锂镍钴锰等有价金属的回收效率,以及在回收过程中减少对环境造成的二次污染,是目前环境科研者研究的热点问题.以柠檬酸为浸出酸,研究了废弃锂离子电池正极材料镍钴锰酸锂在柠檬酸溶液中浸出效果,比较不同反应时间、反应温度、柠檬酸浓度、固液比以及添加双氧水和硫代硫酸钠对镍钴锰浸出效率的影响.结果表明延长反应时间、提高反应温度和柠檬酸浓度有利于有价金属的浸出,双氧水和硫代硫酸钠的添加对镍钴锰的浸出有显著促进作用.     

A new find of a Middle Pleistocene mandible from Bilzingsleben, Germany

 The Middle Pleistocene site at Bilzingsleben is being excavated by the Forschungsstelle Bilzingsleben, FSU Jena. It is a living floor with structures of settlement and a great number of Lower Palaeolithic cultural remains. So far, 28 human skull fragments have been discovered, which can be reconstructed into two individual skulls. Recently, the right mandible has also been discovered (Bilzingsleben E7). Morphological comparisons indicate that there is a great similarity to the mandibles of HI and BI of Sinanthropus. A strong likeness to Arago II and XIII was also discovered. There are various different archaic features which assign the Bilzingsleben mandible and the two skulls to the advanced Homo erectus. Received: 16 March 2000 / Accepted in revised form: 30 March 2000     

铅锌矿区土壤中有效态重金属的稳定化研究

为研究铅锌矿区土壤中重金属的稳定化方案,实地采集了四川省攀枝花市米易县某铅锌矿区污染土壤,采用稻壳、秸秆-木材和动物粪便3种不同来源的生物炭对土壤中弱酸提取态Pb、Zn、Cd、Cu和水溶态Zn进行了静态实验,并在此基础上选择动物粪便炭添加到污染土壤中进行了35 d的培育实验。结果表明:动物粪便炭对矿区污染土壤中弱酸提取态Zn、Cd、Pb、Cu稳定化性能最好,去除率分别为13.16%、15.68%、96.33%、65.39%,3种来源生物炭对水溶态Zn去除率均>90%;培育实验中施用30%动物粪便炭的土壤中弱酸提取态Pb降低了97.36%,水溶性Zn也得到了有效降低。因此动物粪便炭的施加可降低矿区污染土壤中重金属的迁移能力,对于铅锌矿区土壤重金属污染的防范与治理提供了参考。     

The emergence of collective foraging in the arboreal<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Gnamptogenys menadensis</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Gnamptogenys menadensis is an arboreal nester that forages opportunistically almost exclusively on vegetation, sometimes recruiting others to participate in prey retrieval. The three-dimensional characteristics of vegetation suggest that functions describing recruitment decision thresholds or the pattern of recruitment in arboreal species may differ from those predicted by optimal foraging theory. To examine the effects of prey abundance and distance on the recruitment dynamics of G. menadensis, we baited nests with one termite, five termites or a number of termites between 20 and 40 either near to or far from the entrance and observed the ensuing behaviors. G. menadensis recruited others when encountering multiple termites regardless of the termite pile's distance from the nest, although a few individuals remained at the site and defended the resource. The pattern of arrivals at the site indicates that the majority and sometimes all arrivals were recruited from the branch trails. In combination, these results suggest that the architecture of the foraging habitat, which limits available return routes to the nest and thus increases encounter probabilities with potential recruits, shaped the process of information transfer and generated a collective pattern of foraging and prey retrieval.     

Larval competition in weevils Revena rubiginosa (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) preying on seeds of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae)

Inter- and intraspecific local resource competition may lead to the selection of specific adaptive individual characteristics to overcome interference competition. A highly selective scenario is predictable for interference competition among seed preying weevil larvae that live in and feed upon a single host seed. This scenario is found in Syagrus romanzoffiana palm seeds which are predated by Revena rubiginosa (Curculionidae) larvae. Although multiple infestation of one seed by weevil larvae can occur, invariably only one individual survives and develops in each host seed. A strong competition between the first instar larvae in a restricted window of host fruit development stages leads to physical interactions of conspecifics by ovicide or direct fighting using falcate mandibles. The occurrence of this type of mandible is synchronized with fruit development and restricted to instars with probable competition, as infestation occurs only while the endocarp is soft. Only after lignification of the endocarp the larva changes into the next instar. Mandibles of subsequent instars differ markedly from those of the first instar. The new mandibles can scrape the solid endosperm but are unable to perforate and kill conspecifics. These findings give strong evidence for the selective pressure of intraspecific competition, where special behaviour, mandible morphology and synchronization of its changes with the seed development contribute to individual benefit that involves the killing of conspecifics, since one host seed can only maintain a single larva throughout its complete development.     

基于唐南渗析原理阳离子交换膜对Cu~(2+)、Mn~(2+)、Zn~(2+)去除能力的研究

基于唐南渗析原理,采用阳离子交换膜去除原水中Cu2+、Mn2+、Zn2+等重金属离子,研究影响阳离子交换膜去除各重金属离子能力大小的机制以及2种重金属离子共存时互相干扰的机制.结果表明,阳离子交换膜可有效去除原水中Cu2+、Mn2+、Zn2+等重金属离子,去除率为75%～85%;在浓度相同下且重金属离子带相同电荷数时,其水化离子半径越小,离子扩散速度就越快,阳离子交换膜对其去除能力就越强;当重金属水化离子半径基本相同时,膜对原子序数小的重金属离子的去除能力更强;相同浓度且相同电荷数的重金属离子共存时,各离子同步被去除,但各离子之间存在干扰,越易于被离子交换的离子与其它离子共存时,其竞争能力越强,使其他离子的去除率降低越多;当待去除离子的总浓度远低于膜的交换容量时,离子共存时各离子的去除率相比离子单独存在时各离子的去除率下降幅度不大.