成都平原大气颗粒物中无机水溶性离子污染特征

为探讨成都平原大气颗粒物中水溶性离子的污染特征,识别水溶性离子的组成、分布和时空变化,有针对性地控制重污染和灰霾天气,于2013年8月~2014年7月,在成都平原的5个监测点位共采集1 476个颗粒物样品,应用离子色谱法对PM10和PM_(2.5)中8种无机水溶性离子(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+、K~+、Na~+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、Cl~-)进行测量.结果表明在观测期间,PM_(2.5~10)和PM_(2.5)中无机水溶性离子总量分别为11.35μg·m-3和36.93μg·m-3,分别占ρ(PM_(2.5)~10)和ρ(PM_(2.5))的37.8%和46.6%;其中二次离子(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH~+4,SNA)约占各自水溶性离子总量的81.1%和89.9%.水溶性离子质量浓度冬季最高,春秋季相当,夏季最低.ρ(SO2-4)/ρ(PM_(2.5))夏秋季较高,而ρ(NO_3~-)/ρ(PM_(2.5))冬季最高,夏季最低.SNA、Cl~-、K~+大多分布在PM_(2.5)中,Ca~(2+)和Mg~(2+)主要分布在PM_(2.5~10)中.PM_(2.5)基本呈中性,水溶性离子主要以(NH_4)_2SO_4、NH_4NO_3、KNO_3、NaCl、KCl等形式存在.ρ(NO_3~-)/ρ(SO_4~(2-))揭示固定源依然是PM_(2.5)的主要来源.硫氧化速率(SOR)和氮氧化速率(NOR)年均值分别为0.31和0.13,SOR夏季最高,NOR冬季最高,二者变化趋势相反.成都平原PM_(2.5)呈区域性复合污染特征,SNA是造成ρ(PM_(2.5))增加的主导因素.     

苏州市PM2.5中水溶性离子的季节变化及来源分析

2015年在苏州市城区采集大气细颗粒物PM_(2.5)样品共87套,用重量法分析了PM_(2.5)的质量浓度,离子色谱法分析了颗粒物中F-、Cl-、NO_3~-、SO_4~(2-)、Na~+、NH_4~+、K~+、Mg~(2+)和Ca~(2+),共9种水溶性无机离子.观测期间,苏州市PM_(2.5)的年均质量浓度为(74.26±38.01)μg·m-3,其季节特征为冬季春季秋季夏季;9种水溶性离子的总质量浓度为(43.95±23.60)μg·m~(-3),各离子的浓度高低顺序为NO_3~-SO_4~(2-)NH_4~+Na~+Cl~-K~+Ca~(2+)F-Mg~(2+);SNA(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+三者的简称)是最主要的水溶性离子;SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+三者之间具有显著的相关性,它们在PM_(2.5)中主要是以NH_4NO_3和(NH_4)_2SO_4的结合方式存在.苏州市PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子的主要来源包括工业源、燃烧源、二次过程和建筑土壤尘等.     

盘锦市冬季PM2.5水溶性离子特征及来源分析

为探讨盘锦市冬季PM_(2.5)水溶性离子污染特征和来源,于2017年1月采集3个点位的PM_(2.5)样品,用ICS-900离子色谱仪分析了8种离子(Na~+、Mg~(2+)、Ca~(2+)、K~+、NH_4~+、SO_4~(2-)、Cl~-和NO_3~-).开展了PM_(2.5)和离子浓度特征分析、硫氧化率(SOR)和氮氧化率(NOR)计算、离子平衡计算、主成分分析等.结果表明:盘锦市冬季PM_(2.5)浓度与水溶性离子浓度特征为文化公园开发区第二中学;SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+质量浓度较大;冬季硫氧化率(SOR)和氮氧化率(NOR)的均值均大于0.10,说明SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-主要由SO_2和NO_x转化而来;阳离子和阴离子当量相关性较强;开发区整体上呈现出中性,文化公园与第二中学呈现出偏碱性;盘锦市PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子主要来源于煤烟尘,生物质燃烧,二次粒子以及扬尘.     

杭州市PM2.5中水溶性离子的污染特征及其消光贡献

对杭州市2013年大气PM_(2.5)进行采样分析,探讨了其中水溶性离子的污染特征和消光贡献.杭州市PM_(2.5)中总水溶性离子的质量浓度为37.5μg·m~(-3),占PM_(2.5)质量浓度的44.4%,二次离子SNA(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+)是水溶性离子的主要成分,共占到水溶性离子的83.4%.PM_(2.5)和主要水溶性离子的质量浓度都在冬季最大,夏季最低,夏秋季水溶性离子占PM_(2.5)的比值明显高于冬春季,而SNA在总水溶性离子中的比例4个季节非常接近.燃料燃烧和汽车尾气排放导致的二次离子生成,对杭州市PM_(2.5)贡献最大.SOR和NOR的年平均值分别为0.27和0.15,SO_2在大气中的转化率大于NO_x,SOR和NOR与相对湿度都呈现出明显正相关,非均相氧化过程对SO_4~(2-)和NO_3~-的生成具有重要贡献.气溶胶中[NO_3~-]/[SO_4~(2-)]的年平均值为0.63,主要受到燃煤排放的影响.霾天随着霾污染等级的逐渐加重,PM_(2.5)、水溶性离子和SNA的浓度都逐渐增大,SOR和NOR值也不断升高,霾天稳定的天气条件,能有效促进污染物的积累和二次转化.PM_(2.5)和SNA的质量浓度与大气消光系数都呈现出明显正相关,使用IMPROVE公式对不同化学组分消光系数的计算结果能够基本反映出气溶胶对大气散射的变化趋势,其结果显示SNA对大气总消光系数的贡献达60.8%.SNA的消光系数冬季最高,夏季最低,随着霾污染等级的加重,SNA的消光系数和对总消光的贡献比例也逐步增加.     

安阳市大气PM2.5中水溶性离子季节特征及来源解析

为探究安阳市大气PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子的污染特征及其来源,于2018～2019年的典型月份在安阳市采集PM_(2.5)样品,使用离子色谱测试了9种水溶性离子(Na~+、NH_4~+、K~+、Mg~(2+)、Ca~(2+)、F~-、Cl~-、NO_3~-和SO_4~(2-)).开展了PM_(2.5)和水溶性离子浓度水平的分析、阴阳离子平衡和氮氧化率(NOR)、硫氧化率(SOR)的计算、离子相关性和主成分分析等.结果表明,安阳市PM_(2.5)和水溶性离子年均浓度分别为(85.81±45.43)μg·m~(-3)和(48.21±30.04)μg·m~(-3),各离子浓度高低顺序为NO_3~-SO_4~(2-)NH_4~+ Cl~-K~+ Ca~(2+) Na~+Mg~(2+)F~-;阴阳离子电荷当量数值为0.75～0.94,大气气溶胶显碱性;NH_4~+和SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-以及K~+和Cl~-等具有显著的相关性;氮氧化率(NOR)和硫氧化率(SOR)的年均值分别为0.25和0.37;SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+(SNA)的年均浓度为(42.72±27.87)μg·m~(-3),占水溶性离子总量的87.14%;春季、夏季和秋季的NH_4~+主要以(NH_4)_2SO_4和NH_4NO_3的形式存在,冬季的NH_4~+主要以(NH_4)_2SO_4、NH_4NO_3和NH_4 Cl的形式存在;水溶性离子主要来自于二次生成、燃煤、生物质燃烧和扬尘.     

自贡市大气颗粒物中水溶性离子的特征及来源

基于四川省自贡市2015年9月-2016年9月的大气颗粒物采样数据,利用离子色谱仪对其中8种水溶性离子(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+、Na~+、K~+、Cl~-、Ca~(2+)和Mg~(2+))进行了浓度测定。分析结果表明,自贡市PM_(10)平均浓度为(88.4±59.2)μg/m~3,PM_(2.5)为(76.2±51.7)μg/m~3,各季节PM_(2.5)/PM_(10)的浓度比值均大于80%,说明自贡市大气颗粒物污染以PM_(2.5)为主;水溶性离子是颗粒物的主要化学组分,其总质量浓度对PM_(10)和PM_(2.5)的贡献率分别为40.3%和42.7%,其中SNA(二次水溶性无机离子,SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+)、Cl~-、K~+、Ca~(2+)、Na~+和Mg~(2+)在PM_(2.5)的占比分别为39.5%、1.8%、1.2%、0.5%、0.3%和0.04%;SO_4~(2-)是自贡市春季和秋季污染天主要来源,其在PM_(2.5)水溶性离子中的贡献率均为45.5%,NO_3~-对应的贡献率分别为22.3%和23.6%,冬季污染天SO_4~(2-)和NO_3~-的贡献率分别为33.5%和35.7%,NO_3~-的贡献率显著上升。利用因子分析法对PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子进行源解析发现,其来源主要为二次污染源、燃烧源、农业源以及道路扬尘源。     

太原大气颗粒物中水溶性无机离子质量浓度及粒径分布特征

为研究太原大气颗粒物中水溶性无机离子的质量浓度水平、季节变化和粒径分布特征,于2012年6月~2014年5月使用惯性撞击式分级采样器采集大气颗粒物样品,并用离子色谱分析了其中的水溶性无机离子组成.结果表明,PM_(1.1)、PM_(2.1)和PM_9中总水溶性无机离子浓度平均值分别为(15.39±9.91)、(21.10±15.49)和(36.34±18.51)μg·m-3.PM1.1和PM2.1中,二次离子(SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+)占总水溶性无机离子质量分数最高;PM9中SO_4~(2-)和Ca~(2+)占比较高.各粒径段中SO_4~(2-)和NH+4季节变化特征相似,均为冬夏季节高、春秋季节低;NO_3~-、K+和Cl-季节变化特征一致:冬季秋季春季夏季;Ca~(2+)和Mg~(2+)季节变化特征一致:春季冬季秋季夏季.SO_4~(2-)和NH+4为细模态单峰分布,春秋季节在0.43~0.65μm处出现峰值,而夏季出现在0.65~1.1μm处,细粒径段峰值出现由凝结模态向液滴模态转移的现象.NO_3~-为双模态离子,冬季在0.43~2.1μm出现明显细粒径段峰值,夏季在4.7~5.8μm出现明显粗模态峰值.K~+、Na~+和Cl~-为双模态离子,分别在0.43~1.1和4.7~5.8μm出现峰值;Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)和F-呈粗模态单峰分布,在4.7~5.8μm出现峰值.主成分分析结果显示,水溶性无机离子来源主要是二次源、燃煤、工业源、生物质燃烧和土壤尘或降尘.     

长沙市秋季PM2.5中水溶性离子特征及其来源解析

为探究长沙市秋季PM_(2.5)水溶性无机离子组成特征和来源,于2017年9月～11月在长沙城区连续采集大气颗粒物PM_(2.5)样品共85个,并用离子色谱仪分析样品中的9种水溶性无机离子(F~-、Cl~-、NO_3~-、SO_4~(2-)、K~+、Na~+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、NH_4~+)。结果表明,长沙市秋季PM_(2.5)质量浓度的平均值为56. 3±39. 6μg/m~3,总水溶性无机离子质量浓度平均值为29. 47±19. 10μg/m~3,占PM_(2.5)的52. 3%,其中NO_3~-、SO_4~(2-)、NH_4~+是PM_(2.5)中最主要的离子成分。霾天PM_(2.5)平均质量浓度约是清洁天的3倍,NO_3~-、NH_4~+、K~+、Cl~-四种离子的快速增长对霾天PM_(2.5)中离子的贡献最大。由PMF模型解析可知,秋季大气PM_(2.5)主要来源于机动车尾气和燃煤源,而扬尘、生物质燃烧源、工业源和海盐的贡献不到30%。长沙市秋季大气污染呈现机动车尾气等移动源和燃煤等固定源的混合型污染为主。     

泉州市大气PM2.5中水溶性离子季节变化特征及来源解析

为掌握泉州市大气PM_(2.5)中无机水溶性离子的季节变化特征,于2014年3月~2015年1月同步采集了泉州市5个采样点共116个PM_(2.5)样品.用离子色谱法分析了PM_(2.5)中Na~+、NH_4~+、K~+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、F~-、Cl~-、NO_3~-和SO_4~(2-)等9种水溶性无机离子.观测期间,总水溶性离子浓度季节变化特征为春季(14.24±6.43)μg·m~(-3)冬季(8.54±7.61)μg·m~(-3)夏季(4.10±2.67)μg·m~(-3)秋季(3.91±2.58)μg·m~(-3);SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+(SNA)是PM_(2.5)中主要的3种离子,占水溶性离子总质量浓度比例分别为春季(90.3±3.3)%、夏季(68.8±11.7)%、秋季(78.9±7.1)%和冬季(74.0±18.4)%,说明春季二次污染较为严重;PM_(2.5)中阴、阳离子电荷平衡分析显示,阴离子相对亏损,大气细颗粒物组分呈弱碱性;春、冬季NH_4~+主要以(NH_4)_2SO_4、NH_4HSO_4和NH_4NO_3等形式存在,而夏、秋季则主要以NH_4HSO_4和NH_4NO_3形式存在;PMF源解析结果表明,泉州市大气PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子主要来自海盐、二次源、建筑扬尘、垃圾焚烧源和生物质燃烧源.     

厦门市大气PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子污染特征及来源解析

为探讨厦门市大气PM_(2.5)水溶性离子污染特征及来源,于2014年8月和12月同步采集了城区和郊区的PM_(2.5)样品.用离子色谱分析了9种水溶性离子(F~-、Cl~-、NO_3~-、SO_4~(2-)、Na~+、K~+、NH_4~+、Ca~(2+)和Mg~(2+))的质量浓度.结果表明,厦门大气PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子浓度处于较低水平,总水溶性离子浓度(μg/m~3)顺序为:冬季城区(18.16)冬季郊区(14.55)夏季郊区(6.87)夏季城区(5.33),降水对水溶性离子有显著的去除作用.观测期间,夏季PM_(2.5)阴离子相对亏损,冬季反之.SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+(简称SNA)占全部水溶性离子质量浓度之和的比例达79.64%以上,表明厦门市大气PM_(2.5)二次污染较严重.相关性分析和SNA三角图解表明厦门市夏季NH_4~+主要以(NH4)2SO4的形式存在,其次为NH_4NO_3及碱性游离NH_4~+;冬季则主要以(NH_4)_2SO_4和NH_4NO_3的形式存在,其次为NH_4Cl.N/S值表明夏季PM_(2.5)中水溶性离子污染特征以燃煤源排放为主,冬季以交通排放为主,总体呈现出交通源与燃煤污染并存的复合型污染特征,但受海洋源的影响很小.主成分分析进一步表明厦门市大气PM_(2.5)水溶性离子主要来自燃煤源、交通排放和生物质燃烧源.     

Toxic effects of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination on nifH gene in soil

Toxic effects of two agrochemicals on nifH gene in agricultural black soil were investigated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis （DGGE） and sequencing approaches in a microcosm experiment. Changes of soil nifH gene diversity and composition were examined following the application of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination. Acetochlor reduced the nifH gene diversity （both in gene richness and diversity index values） and caused changes in the nifH gene composition. The effects of acetochlor on nifH gene were strengthened as the concentration of acetochlor increased. Cluster analysis of DGGE banding patterns showed that nifH gene composition which had been affected by low concentration of acetochlor （50 mg/kg） recovered firstly. Methamidophos reduced nifH gene richness that except at 4 weeks. The medium concentration of methamidophos （150 mg/kg） caused the most apparent changes in nifH gene diversity at the first week while the high concentration of methamidophos （250 mg/kg） produced prominent effects on nifH gene diversity in the following weeks. Cluster analysis showed that minimal changes of nifH gene composition were found at 1 week and maximal changes at 4 weeks. Toxic effects of acetochlor and methamidophos combination on nifH gene were also apparent. Different nifH genes （bands） responded differently to the impact of agrochemicals： four individual bands were eliminated by the application of the agrochemicals, five bands became predominant by the stimulation of the agrochemicals, and four bands showed strong resistance to the influence of the agrochemicals. Fifteen prominent bands were partially sequenced, yielding 15 different nifH sequences, which were used for phylogenetic reconstructions. All sequences were affiliated with the alpha- and beta-proteobacteria, showing higher similarity to eight different diazotrophic genera.     

Arsenic uptake by arbuscular mycorrhizal maize （Zea mays L.） grown in an arsenic-contaminated soil with added phosphorus

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus (Glomus mosseae) and phosphorus (P) addition (100 mg/kg soil) on arsenic (As) uptake by maize plants (Zea mays L.) from an As-contaminated soil were examined in a glasshouse experiment.Non-mycorrhizal and zero-P addition controls were included.Plant biomass and concentrations and uptake of As,P,and other nutrients,AM colonization,root lengths,and hyphal length densities were determined.The results indicated that addition of P significantly inhibited root colonization and development of extraradical mycelium.Root length and dry weight both increased markedly with mycorrhizal colonization under the zero-P treatments,but shoot and root biomass of AM plants was depressed by P application.AM fungal inoculation decreased shoot As concentrations when no P was added,and shoot and root As concentrations of AM plants increased 2.6 and 1.4 times with P addition,respectively.Shoot and root uptake of P,Mn,Cu,and Zn increased,but shoot Fe uptake decreased by 44.6%,with inoculation, when P was added.P addition reduced shoot P,Fe,Mn,Cu,and Zn uptake of AM plants,but increased root Fe and Mn uptake of the nonmycorrhizal ones.AM colonization therefore appeared to enhance plant tolerance to As in low P soil,and have some potential for the phytostabilization of As-contaminated soil,however,P application may introduce additional environmental risk by increasing soil As mobility.     

EDTA-enhanced phytoremediation of lead contaminated soil by Bidens maximowicziana

Phytoremediation is a potential cleanup technology for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated soils.Bidens maximowicziana is a new Pb hyperaccumulator,which not only has remarkable tolerance to Pb but also extraordinary accumulation capacity for Pb.The maximum Pb concentration was 1509.3 mg/kg in roots and 2164.7 mg/kg in overground tissues.The Pb distribution order in the B. maximowicziana was:leaf>stem>root.The effect of amendments on phytoremediation was also studied.The mobility of soil Pb and the Pb concentrations in plants were both increased by EDTA application.Compared with CK(control check),EDTA application promoted translocation of Pb to overground parts of the plant.The Pb concentrations in overground parts of plants was increased from 24.23-680.56 mg/kg to 29.07-1905.57 mg/kg.This research demonstrated that B.maximowicziana appeared to be suitable for phytoremediation of Pb contaminated soil,especially,combination with EDTA.     

Distribution and ecological effect of mercury in Laogang landfill, Shanghai, China

Laogang landfill near Shanghai is the largest landfill in China, and receives about 10000 t of daily garbage per day, Samples of topsoil and plants were analyzed to evaluate mercury pollution from the landfill. For topsoil samples, there were significant correlations among total mercury （HgT）, combinative mercury （Hgc） and gaseous mercury （HgG）, and content of total organic carbon （TOC）, but, no significantly relationship was found between Hg content and filling time. Hg content changes in vertical profiles with time showed that the average Hgv of profiles 1992, 1996, and 2000 was similar, but their average HgG was quite different. HgT was significantly correlated with Hgc in profile 1992 and 2000, and Hgv was significantly correlated with Hg6 in profile 1996. HgG/Hgv ratio in profile samples decreased in the order of （HgG,/HgT）1992〉（HgG/HgT）1996〉〉（HgG/HgT）2000. A simple outline of Hg release in landfill could be drawn： with increasing of filling time, degradation undergoes different biodegradation, accordingly, gaseous mercury goes through small, more, and small proportion to total mercury. Distribution of Hg in plants was inhomogeneous, following the order of leaf〉root〉stem. The highest value of leaf may be associated with higher atmospheric Hg from landfill. Ligneous plants （e.g. Phyllostachys glanca, Prunus salicina and Ligustrum lucidum） are capable of enriching more Hg than herbaceous plants.     

Enzymatic oxidation of aqueous pentachlorophenol

The influence of the nonionic surfactant Tween 80 on pentachlorophenol （PCP） oxidation catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase was studied. The surfactant was tested at concentrations below and above its critical micelle concentration （CMC）. Enhancement of PCP removal was observed at sub-CMCs. The presence of Tween 80 in the reaction mixture reduced enzyme inactivation which occurred through a combination of free radical attack and sorption by precipitated products. A simple first-order model was able to simulate time profiles for enzyme inactivation in the presence or absence of Tween 80. At supra-CMCs, the surfactant caused noticeable reductions in PCP removal, presumably through micelle partitioning of PCP which precluded the hydrophobic PCP molecule from interacting with the enzyme.     

Decomposition of alachlor by ozonation and its mechanism

Decomposition and corresponding mechanism of alachlor, an endocrine disruptor in water by ozonation were investigated. Results showed that alachlor could not be completely mineralized by ozone alone. Many intermediates and final products were formed during the process, including aromatic compounds, aliphatic carboxylic acids, and inorganic ions. In evoluting these products, some of them with weak polarity were qualitatively identified by GC-MS. The information of inorganic ions suggested that the dechlorination was the first and the fastest step in the ozonation of alachlor.     

基于综合水质标识指数和对应分析法的校园河道水质评价

以三峡大学的校园河道求索溪为研究对象,利用综合水质标识指数法确定求索溪水质类别,分析其水质时空变化规律,并利用对应分析法得出求索溪中不同监测点的主要污染因子.研究结果表明:求索溪整体的综合水质标识指数为7.423,整体水质为劣V类(地表水环境质量标准GB 3838-2002)且黑臭.从时间变化来看,求索溪4月份的水质最差,5月份次之,4、5月份所有监测点的水质都劣于V类且黑臭;8月份水质最好,水质为Ⅳ类;从空间分布来看,8个监测点综合水质标识指数均超过6.0,水质为劣V类,其中6号监测点的水质相对最好,监测点3号的水质相对最差;对应分析法得出求索溪的整体水体污染程度受总氮因子的影响最大,其次为总磷.该研究拟为求索溪及类似校园河道的水环境治理研究提供基础依据和参考.     

Potential of plant polyphenol oxidases in the decolorization and removal of textile and non-textile dyes

In this study an effort has been made to use plant polyphenol oxidases; potato （Solanum tuberosum） and brinjal （Solanum melongena）, for the treatment of various important dyes used in textile and other industries. The ammonium sulphate fractionated enzyme preparations were used to treat a number of dyes under various experimental conditions. Majority of the treated dyes were maximally decolorized at pH 3.0. Some of the dyes were quickly decolorized whereas others were marginally decolorized. The initial first hour was sufficient for the maximum decolorization of dyes. The rate of decolorization was quite slow on long treatment of dyes. Enhancement in the dye decolorization was noticed on increasing the concentration of enzymes. The complex mixtures of dyes were treated with both preparations of polyphenol oxidases in the buffers of varying pH values. Potato polyphenol oxidase was significantly more effective in decolorizing the dyes to higher extent as compared to the enzyme obtained from brinjal polyphenol oxidase. Decolorization of dyes and their mixtures, followed by the formation of an insoluble precipitate, which could be easily removed simply by centrifugation.     

Effects of chitosan on growth of an aquatic plant (Hydrilla verticillata) in polluted waters with different chemical oxygen demands

Effects of chitosan on a submersed plant, Hydrilla verticillata, were investigated. Results indicated that H. venicillata could prevent ultrastructure phytotoxicities and oxidativereaction from polluted water with high chemical oxygen demand (COD). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in H. verticillata treated with 0.1% chitosan in wastewater increased with high COD (980 mg/L) and decreased with low COD (63 mg/L), respectively. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the stroma and grana of chloroplast basically remained normal. However, plant cells from the control experiment (untreated with chitosan) were vacuolated and the cell interval increased. The relict of protoplast moved to the center, with cells tending to disjoint. Our findings indicate that wastewater with high COD concentration can cause a substantial damage to submersed plant, nevertheless, chitosan probably could alleviate the membrane lipid peroxidization and ultrastructure phytotoxicities, and protect plant cells from stress of high COD concentration polluted water.     

Removal of heavy metals from sewage sludge by low costing chemical method and recycling in agriculture

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