Optimal web investment in sub-optimal foraging conditions

Orb web spiders sit at the centre of their approximately circular webs when waiting for prey and so face many of the same challenges as central-place foragers. Prey value decreases with distance from the hub as a function of prey escape time. The further from the hub that prey are intercepted, the longer it takes a spider to reach them and the greater chance they have of escaping. Several species of orb web spiders build vertically elongated ladder-like orb webs against tree trunks, rather than circular orb webs in the open. As ladder web spiders invest disproportionately more web area further from the hub, it is expected they will experience reduced prey gain per unit area of web investment compared to spiders that build circular webs. We developed a model to investigate how building webs in the space-limited microhabitat on tree trunks influences the optimal size, shape and net prey gain of arboricolous ladder webs. The model suggests that as horizontal space becomes more limited, optimal web shape becomes more elongated, and optimal web area decreases. This change in web geometry results in decreased net prey gain compared to webs built without space constraints. However, when space is limited, spiders can achieve higher net prey gain compared to building typical circular webs in the same limited space. Our model shows how spiders optimise web investment in sub-optimal conditions and can be used to understand foraging investment trade-offs in other central-place foragers faced with constrained foraging arenas.     

Does ontogenetic change in orb web asymmetry reflect biogenetic law?

Most orb web spiders face downward on the web hub, and their webs are vertically asymmetrical, that is, the lower part of the web is larger than the upper part and the ratio of the lower part to the whole web area increases as the spider grows. This phenomenon may reflect biogenetic law such that young animals exhibit a general ancestral trait whereas adults exhibit specific and derived traits. An alternative explanation is that vertical asymmetry may arise from the difference in time required by spiders to move up or down the web to capture prey. The present study tested these two hypotheses for Eriophora sagana. Subadults of this species build their webs with reverse asymmetry in that the upper part of the web area is larger than the lower part. In both subadults and adults, the upper proportion decreased with spider weight, and adult spiders built more symmetric webs. These results support the capture time difference hypothesis.     

Spider orientation and hub position in orb webs

Orb-web building spiders (Araneae: Araneoidea, Uloboridae) can be considered as territorial central place foragers. In territorial central place foragers, the optimal foraging arena is circular, with the forager sitting in its centre. In orb webs, the spider’s orientation (head up or head down) whilst waiting for prey on the hub of its web and the downwards–upwards asymmetry of its running speeds are the probable causes for the observed deviation of the hub from the web’s centre. Here, we present an analytical model and a more refined simulation model to analyse the relationships amongst the spider’s running speeds, its orientation whilst waiting for prey and the vertical asymmetry of orb webs. The results of our models suggest that (a) waiting for prey head down is generally favourable because it allows the spider to reach the prey in its web on average quicker than spiders waiting head up, (b) the downwards–upwards running speed asymmetry, together with the head-down orientation of most spiders, are likely causes for the observed vertical asymmetry of orb webs, (c) waiting head up can be advantageous for spiders whose downwards–upwards running speed asymmetry is small and who experience high prey tumbling rates and (d) spiders waiting head up should place their hub lower than similar spiders waiting head down.     

Prey detection without successful capture affects spider’s orb-web building behaviour

Animals obtain information from past foraging experience to adjust their foraging activity according to their environment. The ability of spiders to obtain information from unsuccessful predation experiences was investigated by examining the effects on web building, a significant foraging investment, of prey detection without successful capture in the orb-web spider Cyclosa octotuberculata. Four treatments were employed: (1) successful capture and feeding: one syrphid fly was allowed to be captured and consumed by the spider on the web; (2) single prey-item detection: a syrphid fly was placed on the web to lure the spider, but was removed before capture; (3) five prey-item detection: above prey-item detection stimulus was given five times; and, (4) control: neither prey nor feeding on the web. While control spiders decreased the total thread length and capture area of their webs, prey-item detection spiders in both conditions increased them, indicating that the spider obtained information from unsuccessful predation experience to adjust their foraging investment. The fed spiders exhibited a significantly greater increase than the prey-detection-only spiders, suggesting that prey detection alone and prey detection with consumption had different informational effects. Total thread length did not differ between single and five prey-item detection spiders, but distance between two adjacent sticky spirals increased only in the former spiders, possibly because five times unsuccessful predations prevented spiders to reduce web stickiness. It suggests that the spider changed web morphology according to the number of prey detection.     

Development and growth in synanthropic species: plasticity and constraints

Urbanization poses serious extinction risks, yet some species thrive in urban environments. This may be due to a pronounced developmental plasticity in these taxa, since phenotypically, plastic organisms may better adjust to unpredictable urban food resources. We studied phenotypic plasticity in Nuctenea umbratica, a common European forest and urban vegetation spider. We subjected spiderlings to low (LF), medium (MF) and high (HF) food treatments and documented their growth and developmental trajectories into adulthood. Spiders from the three treatments had comparable numbers of instars and growth ratios, but differed in developmental periods. Longest developing LF spiders (♀?=?390, ♂?=?320 days) had the smallest adults, but MF (♀?=?300, ♂?=?240 days) and HF (♀?=?240, ♂?=?210 days) spiders reached comparable adult sizes through shorter development. While males and females had comparable instar numbers, females had longer development, higher growth ratios, adult sizes and mass; and while males adjusted their moulting to food availability, female moulting depended on specific mass, not food treatment. We discussed the patterns of Nuctenea sex-specific development and compared our results with published data on two other Holarctic urban colonizers (Larinioides sclopetarius, Zygiella x-notata) exhibiting high plasticity and fast generation turn-over. We conclude that despite relatively unconstrained developmental time in the laboratory enabling Nuctenea to achieve maximal mass and size—main female fitness proxies—their relatively fixed growth ratio and long generation turn-over may explain their lower success in urban environments.     

Supercooling ability in the house spider, Achaearanea tepidariorum: effect of field-collected and laboratory-reared prey

The influence of prey animals on the supercooling ability of the house spider, Achaearanea tepidariorum, was studied by feeding spiders with field-collected and laboratory-cultured prey animals. Irrespective of the prey species supplied, spiders given field-collected prey had a higher supercooling point than those given laboratory-cultured counterparts. This means that (1) the field prey animals contained some efficient ice nucleators, whereas the laboratory animals were free from such substances and (2) the ice nucleators must be of external origin. Several lines of evidence also suggest that, under natural conditions, potential prey animals for the house spider are highly contaminated with ice nucleators.     

城市河道修建中人工水环境污染防治对策研究

在"景观娱乐用水水质标准"规定的基础上,分析人工水环境的类别和污染来源,其污染来源主要包括降雨形成的地表径流、城市合流制管道溢流污染、大气沉降以及微生物作用产生的污染物等,均会对水体造成二次污染。加强污染源防控力度,对初期雨水进行控制以防止城市河道污染,使用生物修复技术改善水质,健全城市河道的管理体制,加强宣传教育工作和执法力度,实现对城市河道修建中人工水环境污染的有效防治,达到美化城市居住环境的最终目标。     

沱江流域总氮面源污染负荷时空演变

根据四川省沱江流域水环境受总氮（TN）面源严重污染的现状,采用排污系数法估算2007~2017年该流域来自各面源污染源的TN污染负荷,并利用空间重心统计法和空间分析技术揭示沱江流域TN污染负荷时空分布特征及转移趋势,以期为相关部门精准防控和预警沱江流域面源污染提供理论依据.结果表明,2007~2017年畜禽养殖污染源对整个流域的TN污染负荷贡献率每年均在45%以上,是TN面源污染的主要污染源.农村生活和农村生活垃圾污染源的贡献率呈逐年减少趋势,农田固废和农田径流污染源的贡献率则呈增加趋势.TN总污染负荷总体呈下降趋势,2010年污染负荷最大,达到5.7×10⁴ t,2017年最小,为4.69×10⁴ t.污染负荷在空间上的异质性变化及降雨径流的不均匀分布驱使畜禽养殖、农田固废类和农田径流污染源的TN污染负荷重心由西北向东南方向移动,流域东南部是畜禽养殖、农田固废类和农田径流TN污染的重点防控区域.东南部各区县的农业人口大量向城市人口转化,进而驱动农村生活和农村生活垃圾污染源的TN污染负荷重心由东南向西北方向转移,其转移范围高达66.35 km²,由此确定的最小边界圆是污染源污染负荷变化的重点识别区域,沱江流域西北部则是农村生活和农村生活垃圾TN污染的重点防控区域.本研究拓展了环境科学领域对流域污染负荷时空演变的探究方法,对于改善水环境质量,促进流域经济可持续发展具有重要意义.     

Loss of legs: is it or not a handicap for an orb-weaving spider?

Leg loss is a common phenomenon in spiders, and according to the species 5% to 40% of the adults can present at least one missing leg. There is no possibility of regeneration after adult moult and the animal must manage with its missing appendages until its death. With the loss of one or more legs, female orb-weaving spiders can be penalized twice: firstly, because the legs are necessary for web construction and secondly, the legs are essential for the control of the prey after its interception by the web. During development, spiders may be also penalized because regeneration has energetic costs that take away resources for survival, growth and reproduction. All these consequences should influence negatively the development of the spider and thus its fitness. We investigated the impact of leg loss in the orb-weaving spider, Zygiella x-notata by studying its frequency in a natural population and web building and prey capture behaviours in laboratory. In field populations, 9.5% to 13%, of the adult females presented the loss of one or more legs; the majority of individuals had lost only one leg (in 48% of cases, a first one). Leg loss seems to affect all the adult spiders, as there is no difference of mass between intact spiders and those with missing leg. Data obtained with laboratory-reared spiders, showed that the loss of legs due to the moult is rare (less than 1%). Considering changes in web design, spiders with missing legs decreased their silk investment, increased the distance between spiral turns but did not change the capture surface of the web. Under our laboratory experimental conditions, spiders with one or two lost legs did not present any difference in prey capture efficiency. In laboratory conditions, spiders with lost leg(s) did not show any difference in egg sac production or in longevity (adult lifespan) compared to intact spiders.     

Food caching in orb-web spiders (Araneae: Araneoidea)

Caching or storing surplus prey may reduce the risk of starvation during periods of food deprivation. While this behaviour occurs in a variety of birds and mammals, it is infrequent among invertebrates. However, golden orb-web spiders, Nephila edulis, incorporate a prey cache in their relatively permanent web, which they feed on during periods of food shortage. Heavier spiders significantly reduced weight loss if they were able to access a cache, but lost weight if the cache was removed. The presence or absence of stored prey had no effect on the weight loss of lighter spiders. Furthermore, N. edulis always attacked new prey, irrespective of the number of unprocessed prey in the web. In contrast, females of Argiope keyserlingi, who build a new web every day and do not cache prey, attacked fewer new prey items if some had already been caught. Thus, a necessary preadaptation to the evolution of prey caching in orb-web spiders may be a durable or permanent web, such as that constructed by Nephila.     

河南省北部区域霾污染过程中城市和农村点位PM2.5组分差异

近年来,我国京津冀及其周边地区暴发了多次霾污染过程,受观测仪器等因素的限制,尚未有对河南省北部城市和农村霾污染的对比研究.利用一系列在线高时间分辨率的观测仪器在河南省2个城市点位和3个农村点位对一次区域重污染过程(2018年1月12～25日)进行综合观测.结果表明SO₄^2-、 NO^-₃和NH⁺₄(SNA)是此次区域污染过程中5个点位PM_2.5中占比最高的组分,位于53%～63%之间,以NO^-₃为主24%～32%,其次为SO₄^2-(13%～17%).相较于城市点位,农村点位PM_2.5中有机物的占比更高,尤其是夜间.随着污染的加重,SNA的占比上升,重污染时段可达67%.此外,当区域受南部气团的传输影响时,5个点位PM_2.5中NO^-₃的占比增大;受北和东北部气团的传...     

昭平台水库流域污染负荷调查与分析研究

昭平台水库流域是沙颖河的源头,流域内多为山脉,居住人口分散,工业较少。对昭平台水库流域工业污染源、城镇生活源、农村生活源、种植业源、养殖业源以及水库内源进行了调查核算,结果表明：在昭平台水库流域中,农村生活源是主要污染源;内源、养殖业、种植业源对营养盐贡献很大;城镇生活源比例较小,但排放集中,污染状况不容忽视;工业源比例最小,污染较轻。     

近20年北京市城近郊区环境空气质量变化及其影响因素分析

利用北京环境空气质量定点监测资料,研究了北京市城近郊区近20年来环境空气质量的变化趋势及其影响因素.结果表明,从年际变化看,SO2、降尘、B[a]P浓度显著下降,而NOx、CO浓度和O3超标情况显著上升,空气污染处于由煤烟型向机动车尾气型转变的过程中,表现出典型的复合污染特征.年内变化显示,采暖期污染比非采暖期严重,尤其SO2在采暖期浓度是非采暖期的5.7倍.从空间分布上看,TSP、降尘、O3表现为近郊区污染重于城区;SO2、NOx、CO表现为城区污染重于近郊区.空气污染源增加的压力与环境保护措施的相互作用是驱动北京市近20年环境空气质量变化的主要因素.产业结构的变化、重点污染源的整治、能源结构调整、能源的清洁使用、机动车尾气排放标准的提高等对保护环境空气质量起到一定作用.     

Remote monitoring of vibrational information in spider webs

Spiders are fascinating model species to study information-acquisition strategies, with the web acting as an extension of the animal’s body. Here, we compare the strategies of two orb-weaving spiders that acquire information through vibrations transmitted and filtered in the web. Whereas Araneus diadematus monitors web vibration directly on the web, Zygiella x-notata uses a signal thread to remotely monitor web vibration from a retreat, which gives added protection. We assess the implications of these two information-acquisition strategies on the quality of vibration information transfer, using laser Doppler vibrometry to measure vibrations of real webs and finite element analysis in computer models of webs. We observed that the signal thread imposed no biologically relevant time penalty for vibration propagation. However, loss of energy (attenuation) was a cost associated with remote monitoring via a signal thread. The findings have implications for the biological use of vibrations by spiders, including the mechanisms to locate and discriminate between vibration sources. We show that orb-weaver spiders are fascinating examples of organisms that modify their physical environment to shape their information-acquisition strategy.     

Punctuated evolution of viscid silk in spider orb webs supported by mechanical behavior of wet cribellate silk

The origin of viscid capture silk in orb webs, from cribellate silk-spinning ancestors, is a key innovation correlated with significant diversification of web-building spiders. Ancestral cribellate silk consists of dry nanofibrils surrounding a stiff, axial fiber that adheres to prey through van der Waals interactions, capillary forces, and physical entanglement. In contrast, viscid silk uses chemically adhesive aqueous glue coated onto a highly compliant and extensible flagelliform core silk. The extensibility of the flagelliform fiber accounts for half of the total work of adhesion for viscid silk and is enabled by water in the aqueous coating. Recent cDNA libraries revealed the expression of flagelliform silk proteins in cribellate orb-weaving spiders. We hypothesized that the presence of flagelliform proteins in cribellate silk could have allowed for a gradual shift in mechanical performance of cribellate axial silk, whose effect was masked by the dry nature of its adhesive. We measured supercontraction and mechanical performance of cribellate axial silk, in wet and dry states, for two species of cribellate orb web-weaving spiders to see if water enabled flagelliform silk-like performance. We found that compliance and extensibility of wet cribellate silk increased compared to dry state as expected. However, when compared to other silk types, the response to water was more similar to other web silks, like major and minor ampullate silk, than to viscid silk. These findings support the punctuated evolution of viscid silk mechanical performance.     

Subsocial behaviour and brood adoption in mixed-species colonies of two theridiid spiders

Cooperation and group living often evolves through kin selection. However, associations between unrelated organisms, such as different species, can evolve if both parties benefit from the interaction. Group living is rare in spiders, but occurs in cooperative, permanently social spiders, as well as in territorial, colonial spiders. Mixed species spider colonies, involving closely related species, have rarely been documented. We examined social interactions in newly discovered mixed-species colonies of theridiid spiders on Bali, Indonesia. Our aim was to test the degree of intra- and interspecific tolerance, aggression and cooperation through behavioural experiments and examine the potential for adoption of foreign brood. Morphological and genetic analyses confirmed that colonies consisted of two related species Chikunia nigra (O.P. Cambridge, 1880) new combination (previously Chrysso nigra) and a yet undescribed Chikunia sp. Females defended territories and did not engage in cooperative prey capture, but interestingly, both species seemed to provide extended maternal care of young and indiscriminate care for foreign brood. Future studies may reveal whether these species adopt only intra-specific young, or also inter-specifically. We classify both Chikunia species subsocial and intra- and interspecifically colonial, and discuss the evolutionary significance of a system where one or both species may potentially benefit from mutual tolerance and brood adoption.     

基于PMF的土壤多环芳烃致癌风险定量源解析方法研究:以太原市为例

为实现土壤PAHs (多环芳烃)来源致癌风险的定量化,选取太原市城乡土壤为研究对象,分析PAHs污染水平并建立含量成分谱,利用PMF (正定矩阵因子分解)模型识别污染源,采用蒙特卡罗模拟进行健康风险评估,并联合PMF模型和健康风险模型量化PAHs污染源的健康风险,比较不同污染源对土壤PAHs含量和对致癌风险贡献的差异. 结果表明:①太原市土壤PAHs污染严重,城市地区人群暴露于土壤PAHs的致癌风险超过了可接受风险水平(10?6),农村地区人群超过可接受阈值的概率在10%~50%之间. ②城市土壤中PAHs主要来自燃煤交通混合源(41.5%)、燃煤源(26.0%)、石油源(16.2%)、焦炉排放源(8.2%)和交通排放源(8.1%),农村土壤PAHs主要来自燃煤源(43.3%)、生物质燃烧源(22.3%)、交通排放源(22.7%)和焦炉排放源(11.7%). ③燃煤交通混合源是城市地区致癌风险的最大来源,贡献率为53.7%;交通排放源和燃煤源是农村地区致癌风险的主要来源,贡献率分别为46.3%和45.6%. ④不同污染源对PAHs含量的贡献与其对致癌风险的贡献存在差异,对于城市地区,燃煤交通混合源、交通排放源对PAHs含量的贡献率分别为41.5%、8.1%,而其对致癌风险的贡献率分别为53.7%、13.0%;对于农村地区,交通排放源对PAHs含量的贡献率为22.7%,但其对致癌风险的贡献率为46.3%. 研究显示,规避交通排放源是降低PAHs致癌风险的关键,建议将基于健康风险的定量源解析技术应用到土壤风险管控中,以期更为有效地降低健康风险,保护人体健康.      

河南洛阳市不同功能区土壤重金属污染特征及评价

以河南洛阳市居民区、科教区、城市绿地、商业区、城市主干道、工业区和城乡结合处这7个功能区为研究对象,共采集63个样品.分析不同功能区土壤重金属含量,采用单因子污染指数和内梅罗综合污染指数评价重金属污染的程度,Hakanson潜在生态风险指数法评价土壤重金属潜在生态风险,主成分分析重金属污染的成因和来源.结果表明,6种重金属平均含量均超过河南省土壤重金属背景值.不同功能区重金属的单因子污染指数平均污染趋势为CdZnPbCuNiCr.内梅罗综合污染指数显示工业区重金属总含量最高,污染最为严重.单个重金属潜在生态危害指数Eir表明,Cd的潜在生态危害指数最高.不同功能区土壤多金属潜在危害危险指数RI依次为工业区(548.87)主干道(466.06)商业区(392.81)居民区(226.27)科教区(189.76)绿地(153.72)城郊(117.45),工业区、主干道和商业区达强生态危害水平,居民区、科教区和绿地达中等生态危害水平,而城乡属轻微生态危害.Cu、Zn、Pb和Cd为人为因子,主要来源于工业废物和交通排放;Cr和Ni为自然源因子,受成土母质的控制.     

福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘重金属含量、来源及其健康风险评价

城市地表灰尘中的重金属已成为城市环境和人类健康最重要的威胁之一. 为评价地表灰尘重金属的污染水平,研究了福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中的重金属质量分数、来源及其可能产生的健康风险. 结果表明:福州市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中w(Cr)、w(Cu)、w(Zn)和w(Cd)分别是福州市城区土壤的2.74、4.21、4.01和4.68倍. 灰尘中重金属Co、Ni和Mn主要来源于城市土壤,Cd、Pb和Cu来源于交通运输过程,Cr来源于城市土壤和交通运输,Zn主要来源于交通运输、城市生活污染和工业活动等复合污染源. 不同暴露途径的重金属暴露剂量和非致癌风险大小排序为消化道>皮肤接触>呼吸吸入. 地表灰尘中重金属非致癌总风险为儿童高于成人. 致癌重金属的暴露风险为Cd>Ni>Cr. 城市公交枢纽站地表灰尘中重金属污染受交通运输影响较大.      

中国居民消费磷足迹时空格局及驱动因素研究

在磷足迹内涵界定及其计算模型构建的基础上,探究了中国城乡居民食物消费磷足迹的时空格局,并解析了其驱动机制.结果表明：1978~2018年间,中国食物消费磷资源和磷污染足迹分别增长了6倍和4倍,达到2018年的715.9万t和78.7万t,其中城镇居民是主要贡献源,占比分别达到67%和64%.从结构上看,城乡食物消费磷资源足迹均由荤食主导,其中家禽、水产品和蛋奶消费的磷资源足迹占比不断增加;而磷污染足迹主要源于上游食物生产过程,其中种植业和水产养殖业增幅最为显著.我国31个省市食物消费磷资源足迹和磷污染足迹在空间分布上具有一致性,呈现从东向西减小的趋势,东部省市诸如广东、上海、江苏、北京和山东等远高于其他地区,并且具有高度的空间集聚性,在东部沿海形成高-高（H-H）聚集区.因此调控磷开发利用活动的资源环境压力需要着眼于这些重点区域.我国食物消费磷足迹增长的关键驱动因素是利用效率下降、消费水平提升和饮食结构改变,因此有效提升食物生产的养分利用效率和引导合理的消费理念和饮食习惯是减缓磷的开发活动资源环境压力的重要途径.