Emissions of persistent organic pollutants and eight candidate POPs from UNECE–Europe in 2000, 2010 and 2020 and the emission reduction resulting from the implementation of the UNECE POP protocol

An emission inventory for persistent organic pollutants (POP) is made for the year 2000 based on submissions of emission data from the Parties to the Convention on LRTAP. The inventory covers the UNECE territory except Canada and the United States. For the countries, sources or compounds lacking in official submissions, default emission estimates have been prepared and applied to complete the inventory. An indicative comparison of the year 2000 emissions with the 1990 emission levels from a previous study is presented as well as emission projections for 2010, 2015, 2020 based on activity scenarios developed in the framework of the EU CAFE programme. The key source analysis of the projected emissions assuming full implementation of the UNECE protocols allows identification of remaining source strengths which subsequently are briefly discussed in terms of their potential for (further) reduction. A number of chemicals are currently being investigated for inclusion on the UN/ECE POPs protocol list of priority compounds but for these substances emission estimation methodologies are scarce or non-existent. For eight of these substances (dicofol, edosulfan, hexachlorobutadiene (HBU), pentabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE), pentachlorobenzene (PCBe), pentachlorophenol (PCP), polychloronated naftalenes (PCN) and short chained chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs)) an emission estimation methodology is proposed and a preliminary emission inventory for the year 2000 is presented.     

An assessment of the environmental fate and exposure of benzene and the chlorobenzenes in Canada

Systematic modelling of the fate of benzene and the chlorobenzenes is presented which follows a four-stage process of chemical classification, quantifying discharge rates and environmental concentrations, evaluative assessment of fate and regional mass balance modelling has been carried out for the southern Ontario region. The EQC model was applied to determine the principal transport and transformation processes experienced by this group of chemicals, which vary considerably in volatility and hydrophobicity. Observed environmental concentrations are in satisfactory agreement with the predictions of the steady state Level III ChemCAN model of chemical fate. A multiple pathway human exposure model which estimates intake of contaminants by residents of southern Ontario has been developed and applied to these chemicals. A novel method of deducing maximum tolerable environmental concentrations is presented. Results suggest that benzene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene are present in the environment at levels sufficient to cause exposures near allowable daily intake (ADI) levels for the general population, but the other substances are present at levels which result in exposure ranging from 1/10 to 1/1000 of the ADI.     

European union system for the evaluation of substances: the second version

This publication presents major changes in the assessment of the risks of chemicals to human health and the environment as implemented in the second version of the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances, EUSES 2.0. EUSES is a harmonised quantitative risk assessment tool for chemicals. It is the PC-implementation of the technical guidelines developed within the framework of EU chemical legislation for industrial chemicals and biocides. As such, it is designed to support decision making by risk managers in government and industry and to assist scientific institutions in the risk assessment for these substances. The development of EUSES 2.0 is a co-ordinated project of the European Chemicals Bureau, EU Member States and the European chemical industry. Several model concepts, the technical background and the user interface of EUSES have been improved considerably. Major changes in the environmental assessment such as the implementation of emission scenario documents for industrial chemicals and biocides, the addition of the marine risk assessment, the enhancement of the regional model to include global scales, and improvements in the secondary poisoning and environmental effects modelling will be discussed. The update of the human risk assessment module in EUSES focuses on the risk characterisation for both threshold and non-threshold substances with, among others, the introduction of assessment factors. The performance of EUSES is illustrated in an example showing the human and environmental risk assessment of a sanitation disinfectant for private use.     

Estimation of hydrogen sulfide emission rates at several wastewater treatment plants through experimental concentration measurements and dispersion modeling

The management and operation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) usually involve the release into the atmosphere of malodorous substances with the potential to reduce the quality of life of people living nearby. In this type of facility, anaerobic degradation processes contribute to the generation of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), often at quite high concentrations; thus, the presence of this chemical compound in the atmosphere can be a good indicator of the occurrence and intensity of the olfactory impact in a specific area. The present paper describes the experimental and modelling work being carried out by CEAM-UMH in the surroundings of several wastewater treatment plants located in the Valencia Autonomous Community (Spain). This work has permitted the estimation of H₂S emission rates at different WWTPs under different environmental and operating conditions. Our methodological approach for analyzing and describing the most relevant aspects of the olfactory impact consisted of several experimental campaigns involving intensive field measurements using passive samplers in the vicinity of several WWTPs, in combination with numerical simulation results from a diagnostic dispersion model. A meteorological tower at each WWTP provided the input values for the dispersion code, ensuring a good fit of the advective component and therefore more confidence in the modelled concentration field in response to environmental conditions. Then, comparisons between simulated and experimental H₂S concentrations yielded estimates of the global emission rate for this substance at several WWTPs at different time periods. The results obtained show a certain degree of temporal and spatial (between-plant) variability (possibly due to both operational and environmental conditions). Nevertheless, and more importantly, the results show a high degree of uniformity in the estimates, which consistently stay within the same order of magnitude.

Implications: Estimating emissions to the atmosphere is usually considered a complex task, especially when such discharge comes from diffuse or uncontrolled sources. In any approach to air quality control, just from the point of view of increasing knowledge or as a management problem in order to reduce present levels of pollution, accurate estimation of emission rates is revealed as a fundamental step. Evaluation from an indirect method provides a useful methodology in such cases. Combination of dispersion modeling with experimental air concentration measurements permits one to obtain a first estimation of H₂S emission rates at several wastewater treatment plants. In a subsequent refinement of the process, the initial constant average emissions calculated were improved, leading to the formulation of a time-varying emission model, as a function of environmental quantities.     

Prognosis of environmental concentrations by geo-referenced and generic models: a comparison of GREAT-ER and EUSES exposure simulations for some consumer-product ingredients in the Itter

The aim of this study was the comparison between predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) derived using a generic aspacial model, European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES), and a geo-referenced model, the Geo-referenced Regional Environmental Assessment Tool for European Rivers (GREAT-ER). The PECs of some consumer-product ingredients (boron, LAS) and professional uses (EDTA, NTA and Triclosan) were calculated for the river catchment of the Itter, a small tributary to the river Rhine. The PEClocal and PECregional for the water compartment generated by EUSES (default scenario) were subsequently refined with data that realistically reflects the region of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW scenario) and the Itter catchment (Itter scenario). The results of the three scenarios were then compared with the PECinitial and PECcatchment calculated by GREAT-ER, that was designed as a higher-tiered exposure assessment tool, and with concrete concentrations in the Itter, measured as 24-h composite samples. While the PECregional of all scenarios was close to the lower end of the measured concentrations, the geo-referenced PECs described equally well the real spacial situation. The measured environmental concentrations confirmed the built-in conservatism of the PEClocal calculations by EUSES showing for all investigated chemicals an unrealistically high PEClocal (default). The refinement in the more realistic scenarios could not provide a straight forward general improvement of the PEClocal. In conclusion, when the EUSES prognosis is refined using more detailed substance and regional specific data, it may provide a fairly accurate modelling especially of substances that are not eliminated in the environment. However, in the case of eliminable substances, it does not match the accuracy of higher-tiered geo-referenced exposure models like GREAT-ER.     

A study of emissions from a Euro 4 light duty diesel vehicle with the European particulate measurement programme

The California Air Resources Board, CARB, has participated in a program to quantify particulate matter (PM) emissions with a European methodology, which is known as the Particulate Measurement Programme (PMP). The essence of the PMP methodology is that the diesel PM from a Euro 4 vehicle equipped with a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) consists primarily of solid particles with a size range greater than 23 nm. The PMP testing and the enhanced testing performed by CARB have enabled an increased understanding of both the progress that has been made in PM reduction, and the future remaining challenges for new and improved DPF-equipped diesel vehicles. A comparison of measured regulated emissions and solid particle number emissions with the results obtained by the PMP participating international laboratories was a success, and CARB’s measurements and standard deviations compared well with the other laboratories. Enhanced measurements of the influence of vehicle conditioning prior to testing on PM mass and solid particle number results were performed, and some significant influences were discovered. For example, the influence of vehicle preconditioning on particle number results was significant for both the European and USA test driving cycles. However, the trends for the cycles were opposite with one cycle showing an increase and the other cycle showing a decrease in particle number emissions. If solid particle size distribution and total particle numbers are to be used as proposed in PMP, then a greater understanding of the quality and errors associated with measurement technologies is advisable.In general, particle counting instruments gave results with similar trends, but cycle-to-cycle testing variation was observed. Continuous measurements of particle number concentrations during test cycles have given detailed insight into PM generation. At the present time there is significant variation in the capabilities of the particle counting instruments in terms of particle size and concentration.Current measurements show the existence of a large number of volatile and semi-volatile particles of yet-to-be-resolved chemical composition in diesel exhaust, especially during DPF regeneration, and these particles are not included in the PMP methodology because they are smaller than 20 nm. It will be very challenging to improve our understanding of this class of diesel particulate matter.     

Diesel passenger car PM emissions: From Euro 1 to Euro 4 with particle filter

This paper examines the impact of the emission control and fuel technology development on the emissions of gaseous and, in particular, PM pollutants from diesel passenger cars. Three cars in five configurations in total were measured, and covered the range from Euro 1 to Euro 4 standards. The emission control ranged from no aftertreatment in the Euro 1 case, an oxidation catalyst in Euro 2, two oxidation catalysts and exhaust gas recirculation in Euro 3 and Euro 4, while a catalyzed diesel particle filter (DPF) fitted in the Euro 4 car led to a Euro 4 + DPF configuration. Both certification test and real-world driving cycles were employed. The results showed that CO and HC emissions were much lower than the emission standard over the hot-start real-world cycles. However, vehicle technologies from Euro 2 to Euro 4 exceeded the NOx and PM emission levels over at least one real-world cycle. The NOx emission level reached up to 3.6 times the certification level in case of the Euro 4 car. PM were up to 40% and 60% higher than certification level for the Euro 2 and Euro 3 cars, while the Euro 4 car emitted close or slightly below the certification level over the real-world driving cycles. PM mass reductions from Euro 1 to Euro 4 were associated with a relevant decrease in the total particle number, in particular over the certification test. This was not followed by a respective reduction in the solid particle number which remained rather constant between the four technologies at 0.86 × 10¹⁴ km^?1 (coefficient of variation 9%). As a result, the ratio of solid vs. total particle number ranged from ～50% in Euro 1–100% in Euro 4. A significant reduction of more than three orders of magnitude in solid particle number is achieved with the introduction of the DPF. However, the potential for nucleation mode formation at high speed from the DPF car is an issue that needs to be considered in the over all assessment of its environmental benefit. Finally, comparison of the mobility and aerodynamic diameters of airborne particles led to fractal dimensions dropping from 2.60 (Euro 1) to 2.51 (Euro 4), denoting a more loose structure with improving technology.     

Contaminant risks from biosolids land application: contemporary organic contaminant levels in digested sewage sludge from five treatment plants in Greater Vancouver,British Columbia

This study examines the potential for environmental risks due to organic contaminants at sewage sludge application sites, and documents metals and various potential organic contaminants (volatile organics, chlorinated pesticides, PCBs, dioxins/furans, extractable petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs, phenols, and others) in current production biosolids from five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) within the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD). There has been greater focus in Europe, North America and elsewhere on metals accumulation in biosolids-amended soil than on organic substances, with the exception of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Another objective, therefore, was to evaluate the extent to which management of biosolids re-use based on metal/metalloid levels coincidentally minimizes environmental risks from organic contaminants. Historical-use contaminants such as chlorophenols, PCBs, and chlorinated pesticides were not detected at environmentally relevant concentrations in any of the 36 fresh biosolids samples, and appear to have virtually eliminated from sanitary collection system inputs. The few organic contaminants found in freshly produced biosolids samples that exhibited high concentrations relative to British Columbia and Canadian soil quality benchmarks included p-cresol, phenol, phenanthrene, pyrene, naphthalene, and heavy extractable petroleum hydrocarbons (HEPHs--nCl9-C34 effective carbon chain length). It was concluded that, with the exception of these petroleum hydrocarbon constituents or their microbial metabolites, the mixing of biosolids with uncontaminated soils during land application and based on the known metal concentrations in biosolids from the Greater Vancouver WWTPs investigated provides adequate protection against the environmental risks associated with organic substances such as dioxins and furans, phthalate esters, or volatile organics. Unlike many other organic contaminants, the concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbon derived substances in biosolids has not decreased within the last decade or more in the WWTPs studied, and--unlike persistent chlorinated compounds--the associated PAHs and other hydrocarbon constituents merit careful consideration, especially in the context of repeated land-application of biosolid.     

Modelling the spatial distribution of ammonia emissions in the UK

Ammonia emissions (NH3) are characterised by a high spatial variability at a local scale. When modelling the spatial distribution of NH3 emissions, it is important to provide robust emission estimates, since the model output is used to assess potential environmental impacts, e.g. exceedance of critical loads. The aim of this study was to provide a new, updated spatial NH3 emission inventory for the UK for the year 2000, based on an improved modelling approach and the use of updated input datasets. The AENEID model distributes NH3 emissions from a range of agricultural activities, such as grazing and housing of livestock, storage and spreading of manures, and fertilizer application, at a 1-km grid resolution over the most suitable landcover types. The results of the emission calculation for the year 2000 are analysed and the methodology is compared with a previous spatial emission inventory for 1996.     

The evolution of mass balance models of persistent organic pollutant fate in the environment

Current approaches to modelling the fate of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment have evolved in response to four dominant characteristics of these substances; namely: (1) the presence of POPs in virtually all environmental phases and the ease with which they move from one to the other requires multi-compartmental modelling. Describing transport across phase boundaries becomes as, or even more, important as quantifying transport within the phases; (2) POPs may persist in the environment for many decades. For chemicals that 'have time', concepts such as equilibrium partitioning and steady-state become more important than for short-lived substances whose fate is more controlled by the rates of transformation; (3) measuring POPs is difficult and expensive and observed concentrations of POPs are not available in high spatial or temporal resolution. Consequently, high resolution tends not to be a high priority in POP models; and (4) detrimental effects of POPs often manifest themselves in top predators, which has led to a focus on modelling biotic uptake and transfer within food chains. The task of building a POPs model is viewed as combining the four 'building blocks' of partitioning, transport, transformation and source data with the help of the law of the conservation of mass. Process models, evaluative models, models of real local, regional and global fate, as well as biological uptake models are presented and references to numerous examples are provided. An attempt is made to forecast future directions in the field of POPs modelling. It is expected that modelling techniques that do not rely on quantitative emission estimates as well as approaches that take into account spatial, temporal and climatic variability as well as parameter uncertainty will increase in importance. Finally, the relationship between modelling POPs and models of other pollutant issues is addressed, as are potential interactions between POPs and pollutant issues such as eutrophication, acidification and global climate change.     

CityDelta: A model intercomparison study to explore the impact of emission reductions in European cities in 2010

This paper gives an overview of the set up, methodology and the obtained results of the CityDelta (phase 1 and 2) project. In the context of the Clean Air For Europe programme of the European Commission, the CityDelta project was designed to evaluate the impact of emission-reduction strategies on air quality at the European continental scale and in European cities. Ozone and particulate matter (PM) are the main components that have been studied. To achieve this goal, a model intercomparison study was organized with the participation of more than 20 modelling groups with a large number of modelling configurations. Two following main topics can be identified in the project. First, in order to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, the participating models were evaluated against observations in a control year (1999). An accompanying paper will discuss in detail this evaluation aspect for four European cities. The second topic is the actual evaluation of the impact of emission reductions on levels of ozone and PM, with particular attention to the differences between large-scale and fine-scale models. An accompanying paper will discuss this point in detail. In this overview paper the main input to the intercomparison is described as well as the use of the ensemble approach. Finally, attention is given to the policy relevant issue on how to implement the urban air quality signal into large-scale air quality models through the use of functional relationships.     

Competing TCE and cis-DCE degradation kinetics by zero-valent iron-experimental results and numerical simulation

The successful dechlorination of mixtures of chlorinated hydrocarbons with zero-valent metals requires information concerning the kinetics of simultaneous degradation of different contaminants. This includes intraspecies competitive effects (loading of the reactive iron surface by a single contaminant) as well as interspecies competition of several contaminants for the reactive sites available. In columns packed with zero-valent iron, the degradation behaviour of trichloroethylene (TCE), cis-dichloroethylene (DCE) and mixtures of both was measured in order to investigate interspecies competition. Although a decreasing rate of dechlorination is to be expected, when several degradable substances compete for the reactive sites on the iron surface, TCE degradation is nearly unaffected by the presence of cis-DCE. In contrast, cis-DCE degradation rates decrease significantly when TCE is added. A new modelling approach is developed in order to identify and quantify the observed competitive effects. The numerical model TBC (Transport, Biochemistry and Chemistry, Sch?fer et al., 1998a) is used to describe adsorption, desorption and dechlorination in a mechanistic way. Adsorption and degradation of a contaminant based on a limited number of reactive sites leads to a combined zero- and first-order degradation kinetics for high and low concentrations, respectively. The adsorption of several contaminants with different sorption parameters to a limited reactive surface causes interspecies competition. The reaction scheme and the parameters required are successfully transferred from Arnold and Roberts (2000b) to the model TBC. The degradation behaviour of the mixed contamination observed in the column experiments can be related to the adsorption properties of TCE and cis-DCE. By predicting the degradation of the single substances TCE and cis-DCE as well as mixtures of both, the calibrated model is used to investigate the effects of interspecies competition on the design of permeable reactive iron barriers. Even if TCE is present in only small concentrations (>3% of molar cis-DCE concentration) it is the contaminant limiting the residence time and the required thickness of the iron barrier.     

Hydrocarbon emission fingerprints from contemporary vehicle/engine technologies with conventional and new fuels

The present paper presents results from the analysis of 29 individual C₂–C₉ hydrocarbons (HCs) specified in the European Commission Ozone Directive. The 29 HCs are measured in exhaust from common, contemporary vehicle/engine/fuel technologies for which very little or no data is available in the literature. The obtained HC emission fingerprints are compared with fingerprints deriving from technologies that are being phased out in Europe. Based on the total of 138 emission tests, thirteen type-specific fingerprints are extracted (Mean ± SD percentage contributions from individual HCs to the total mass of the 29 HCs), essential for receptor modelling source apportionment. The different types represent exhaust from Euro3 and Euro4 light-duty (LD) diesel and petrol-vehicles, Euro3 heavy-duty (HD) diesel exhaust, and exhaust from 2-stroke preEuro, Euro1 and Euro2 mopeds. The fuels comprise liquefied petroleum gas, petrol/ethanol blends (0–85% ethanol), and mineral diesel in various blends (0–100%) with fatty acid methyl esters, rapeseed methyl esters palm oil methyl esters, soybean oil methyl or sunflower oil methyl esters. Type-specific tracer compounds (markers) are identified for the various vehicle/engine/fuel technologies.An important finding is an insignificant effect on the HC fingerprints of varying the test driving cycle, indicating that combining HC fingerprints from different emission studies for receptor modelling purposes would be a robust approach.The obtained results are discussed in the context of atmospheric ozone formation and health implications from emissions (mg km^?1 for LD and mopeds and mg kW h^?1 for HD, all normalised to fuel consumption: mg dm^?3 fuel) of the harmful HCs, benzene and 1,3-butadiene.Another important finding is a strong linear correlation of the regulated “total” hydrocarbon emissions (tot-HC) with the ozone formation potential of the 29 HCs (ΣPO₃ = (1.66 ± 0.04) × tot-RH; r² = 0.93). Tot-HC is routinely monitored in emission control laboratories, whereas C₂–C₉ are not. The revealed strong correlations broadens the usability of data from vehicle emission control laboratories and facilitates the comparison of the ozone formation potential of HCs in exhaust from of old and new vehicle/engine/fuel technologies.     

The long range transport of ozone within Europe and its control

It is widely accepted that the ozone concentrations experienced during photochemical episodes over large areas of Europe may exceed levels at which adverse environmental effects could be expected. These peak ozone concentrations can be reduced by controlling atmospheric emissions of the hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide precursors. For ozone control to be successful over the spatial scale of Europe, long term international cooperation is required in the formulation of emission abatement strategies. A significant barrier to rapid progress has been the complexity of the processes that describe ozone formation. Highly sophisticated computer models of chemistry and transport have, up to now, been the only means to study the impact of abatement strategies. An alternative approach has been adopted here involving the development of a simplified long range transport model for ozone based on the analysis of over 60 experimental runs of a photochemical trajectory model applied to a wide range of hydrocarbon-nitrogen oxide emission combinations. Using the ozone-precursor relationship obtained, it has been possible to examine various policy options in the European context. Although taken together, three illustrative emission control scenarios reduce NO(x) and hydrocarbon emissions substantially through controls on motor vehicle exhaust, large combustion plant and solvent usage, a significant potential for photochemical ozone formation and long range transport may still remain after their implementation. The extents of precursor emission abatement that will be required, if the potential for ozone formation is to be reduced below published air quality criteria guidelines or critical levels, have been determined for each European country. The implied reductions in NO(x) and hydrocarbons relative to current levels amount to between 50 and 90%.     

Estimation of hydrogen sulfide emission rates at several wastewater treatment plants through experimental concentration measurements and dispersion modeling

The management and operation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) usually involve the release into the atmosphere of malodorous substances with the potential to reduce the quality of life of people living nearby. In this type of facility, anaerobic degradation processes contribute to the generation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), often at quite high concentrations; thus, the presence of this chemical compound in the atmosphere can be a good indicator of the occurrence and intensity of the olfactory impact in a specific area. The present paper describes the experimental and modelling work being carried out by CEAM-UMH in the surroundings of several wastewater treatment plants located in the Valencia Autonomous Community (Spain). This work has permitted the estimation of H2S emission rates at different WWTPs under different environmental and operating conditions. Our methodological approach for analyzing and describing the most relevant aspects of the olfactory impact consisted of several experimental campaigns involving intensive field measurements using passive samplers in the vicinity of several WWTPs, in combination with numerical simulation results from a diagnostic dispersion model. A meteorological tower at each WWTP provided the input values for the dispersion code, ensuring a good fit of the advective component and therefore more confidence in the modelled concentration field in response to environmental conditions. Then, comparisons between simulated and experimental H2S concentrations yielded estimates of the global emission rate for this substance at several WWTPs at different time periods. The results obtained show a certain degree of temporal and spatial (between-plant) variability (possibly due to both operational and environmental conditions). Nevertheless, and more importantly, the results show a high degree of uniformity in the estimates, which consistently stay within the same order of magnitude.     

PCBs and PCDD/Fs in lake sediments of Grosser Arbersee, Bavarian Forest, South Germany

Despite their environmental importance, there are still relatively few historical studies of the environmental occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), especially in middle Europe. Trends in PCBs and PCDD/Fs were, therefore, assessed in lake sediments of the Grosser Arbersee over the past 130 years (1860-1990). Ballschmiter-PCB concentrations (congeners # 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180) increased between 1946 and 1972 from 4.2 to 32.0 microg kg(-1) dry wt, but have since decreased to 25.6 microg kg(-1) dry wt. High chlorinated PCB congeners reached their maxima earlier (1968-1972) than low chlorinated congeners (1985-1991). These trends were consistent with patterns expected from the production and use of PCBs and their precursors. PCDD/F concentrations increased between 1950 from 0.6 microg kg(-1) dry wt to 2.3 microg kg(-1) dry wt in 1977, falling to 1.7 microg kg(-1) dry wt by 1993. PCDF concentrations exceeded those of PCDD until 1968, but afterwards PCDDs (especially OCDD) were predominant. These patterns suggest that domestic heating and waste combustion were the most likely sources, but pollution from local industries, such as metal smelting and glass production, might also have been involved. The data provide a valuable case study from central Europe which confirms the overall declining trends of PCB and PCDD/F contamination shown elsewhere.     

New methodology to investigate potential contaminant mass fluxes at the stream-aquifer interface by combining integral pumping tests and streambed temperatures

The spatial pattern and magnitude of mass fluxes at the stream-aquifer interface have important implications for the fate and transport of contaminants in river basins. Integral pumping tests were performed to quantify average concentrations of chlorinated benzenes in an unconfined aquifer partially penetrated by a stream. Four pumping wells were operated simultaneously for a time period of 5 days and sampled for contaminant concentrations. Streambed temperatures were mapped at multiple depths along a 60m long stream reach to identify the spatial patterns of groundwater discharge and to quantify water fluxes at the stream-aquifer interface. The combined interpretation of the results showed average potential contaminant mass fluxes from the aquifer to the stream of 272microgm(-2)d(-1) MCB and 71microgm(-2)d(-1) DCB, respectively. This methodology combines a large-scale assessment of aquifer contamination with a high-resolution survey of groundwater discharge zones to estimate contaminant mass fluxes between aquifer and stream.     

A legislative view on science and predictive models

Preparation of European environmental policy needs detailed and consistent assessments. All possible and available means have to be applied to get the optimal solution for current and upcoming problems in the environment. As there will be a recognition of the increasing importance of linkages between the various aspects in the environment, a sound and appropriate method for tackling the integration problem is needed. One of the main features of Integrated Environmental Assessment (IEA) deals with the linkage between societal activities and the relevant environmental issues. The European Environment Agency (EEA) uses a chain of linkages between the driving forces within society (D), the pressure on the environment (P), the state of the environment itself (S), the impact on people and nature (I) and the desirable response (R). This approach is called the DPSIR chain. For each environmental issue a chain, including the linkages, could be developed by combining available knowledge and data. In fact it is a complex multi-dimensional system of relations between the chains belonging to the various aspects. Modelling the integration of all available scientific knowledge and data is the only way to deliver adequate information for the policy preparation process. The EEA made use of this approach for its assessments of Europe's environment. Every three years the EEA will publish an "Assessment" and a "State of the Environment". The latest publication was "Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment", in June 1998 (EEA,1998). The next will be the "State of the Environment 1998" (EEA,1998), to be published in 1999. A prospective analysis forms part of the preparation of this report, in which modelling, based on the same DPSIR-approach is essential. The above-mentioned publications contribute to the preparation of new policy lines within the European Community.     

Changes of emissions and atmospheric deposition of mercury,lead, and cadmium

This paper reviews the information on trends of past emissions of mercury, lead, and cadmium in Europe, as well as examines current levels and future scenarios of these emissions. The impact of various factors on emission changes is discussed including the implementation of various strategies of emission controls in Europe. Future emissions are forecasted on the basis of various scenarios of economy growth in Europe, implementation of European and global legislation (e.g. the Kyoto agreement), population changes, etc.Changes of emissions of mercury, lead, and cadmium are then related to the changes of concentrations of these contaminants in air and precipitation samples at selected stations in Europe. It can be concluded that the reduction trends of anthropogenic emissions of cadmium and lead in Europe are similar to the reduction trends of air concentrations of these metals during the last 2 decades. Somewhat different relationship has been noted for changes in emissions and precipitation. In general for Europe, 60% reduction of Cd emissions was met by about 45% reductions of Cd concentrations in precipitation at the studied stations during the last 2 decades.There is a potential for further reduction of these emissions until the year 2010 up to about 37% for Cd, 51% for Pb, and 49% for Hg as estimated within various emission scenarios presented in the paper.