Social preferences towards ecosystem services provided by cloud forests in the neotropics: implications for conservation strategies

Despite the importance of neotropical cloud forests as providers of ecosystem services to society, they are one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world. We analysed the importance of three cloud forest reserves in central Colombia as providers of ecosystem services, as well as the social support to conservation actions in these ecosystems through willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to give up time (WTT) estimates. Our results highlight the high commitment of all users of the cloud forest areas towards the conservation of the ecosystem services provided by these strategic ecosystems. We found that the most important perceived ecosystem services were water supply and habitat maintenance for species. Our findings also suggest that the respondents’ ecological knowledge (measured as the awareness of the ecosystem services supplied by cloud forests) was an important factor in determining both WTP and WTT for conserving cloud forests. Moreover, our results indicate that WTT should be a viable technique to explore individual preferences of different stakeholders towards conservation activities in cloud forests. Based on our results, we propose a conservation strategy of cloud forests that considers different users’ socio-economic and environmental characteristics, in which both experimental and experiential knowledge should be incorporated in order to promote collective action.     

Governance objectives and instruments,ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation: the Chianti case study

The complex relationships between governance processes, ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation are receiving growing attention by the scientific community. The scope of research in this field is generally that of identifying main governance factors leading to success or failure in the sustainable management of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation, so to develop appropriate sectoral and intersectoral policies fostering sustainable use of natural resources. In this paper, a methodological approach is first presented and then applied to analyse the impacts of agriculture and rural policies on agro-ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in the central hills of Tuscany, the Chianti area. This approach is focusing in particular on governance objectives and instruments used in the management of ecosystem services. A share-farming system based on multifunctional agriculture ruled Chianti until World War II. Then, after the abandonment of rural areas by share-farmers, governance objectives and ecosystem management were oriented towards the production of commodities such as wine and olive oil almost ignoring the provision of public goods such as soil erosion and water run-off control and biodiversity conservation. In order to achieve a more sustainable ecosystems management in Chianti, there is the need to develop a multifaceted governance strategy to reward appropriately the supplying of environmental goods and services by farmers.     

Hierarchical priority setting for restoration in a watershed in NE Spain, based on assessments of soil erosion and ecosystem services

Maintaining and enhancing ecosystem services through the restoration of degraded ecosystems have become an important biodiversity conservation strategy. Deciding where to restore ecosystems for the attainment of multiple services is a key issue for future planning, management, and human well-being. Most restoration projects usually entail a small number of actions in a local area and do not consider the potential benefits of planning restoration at broad regional scales. We developed a hierarchical priority setting approach to evaluate the performance of restoration measures in a semiarid basin in NE Spain (the Martín River Basin, 2,112 km²). Our analysis utilized a combination of erosion (a key driver of degradation in this Mediterranean region) and six spatially explicit ecosystem services data layers (five of these maps plotted surrogates for soil retention and accumulation, water supply and regulation, and carbon storage, and one plotted a cultural service, ecotourism). Hierarchical maps were generated using a geographic information system that combined areas important for providing a bundle of ecosystem services, as state variables, with erosion maps, as the disturbance or regulatory variable. This was performed for multiple scales, thereby identifying the most adequate scale of analysis and establishing a spatial hierarchy of restoration actions based on the combination of the evaluation of erosion rates and the provision of ecosystem services. Our approach provides managers with a straightforward method for determining the spatial distribution of values for a set of ecosystem services in relation to ecological degradation thresholds and for allocating efforts and resources for restoration projects in complex landscapes.     

Ecosystem management based on ecosystem services and human activities: a case study in the Yanhe watershed

With activities that alter the structure and function of the habitat, humans have a direct impact on ecosystems and ecosystem services, i.e., the conditions and processes that sustain human life. In this study, 35 townships in the Yanhe watershed in the Loess Plateau of China were selected. The net primary production (NPP), carbon sequestration and oxygen production (CSOP), water conservation, and soil conservation were the ecosystem services selected and valuated. Human activity was quantified by an integrated human activity index (HAI) based on population density, farmland ratio, and the influence of road networks and residential areas. The NPP, CSOP, and water conservation showed a conspicuous spatial pattern fanning outward from the southwest, while the soil conservation showed an obscure spatial pattern distinguished primarily by the peripheral area surrounding the urbanized areas. Total ecosystem services in the Yanhe watershed demonstrated a decreasing pattern from south to north, and the HAI was in proportion to administrative and economic development. Based on the selected ecosystem services and HAI, we mapped the townships of the Yanhe watershed by cluster analysis, and provided sustainable ecosystem management suggestions, tailored to the social-ecological map.     

Indicator based approach for monitoring natural resources of village ecosystems: findings from select ecosystems of southern India

Indian village ecosystems are diverse with respect to population pressures, agricultural activities and production, livestock composition, energy sources, economics and infrastructural capabilities. Natural resource degradation is a major global concern and the factors and processes leading to degradation are regional and scale up from the micro levels such as village ecosystems. There is need for integrated multidisciplinary approaches for monitoring the resource status and environmental issues at the decentralized level. This paper presents an approach to assess village ecosystems using a set of key indicators developed and tested across fourteen diverse village ecosystems of the Southern India. The concept of ecosystem services associated with village ecosystems of India has been described and adopted to identify indicators and assess issues and trends. Comparison across villages has been demonstrated and the indicators successfully reflected the key environmental issues at each village level as well as differences across villages. We also report unique cases of stabilized land use and ‘desakota-like’ trends from village ecosystem studied.     

汉江流域生态系统服务权衡与协同关系演变

汉江流域是我国南水北调工程的水源地,也是国家重要的生态功能区,定量分析其生态系统服务关系对协调区域发展与保护环境有重要意义。综合利用RS与GIS技术对该区域2000～2015年的土壤保持、碳储量与食物供给服务进行空间制图,并基于空间采样法对3种生态系统服务间的权衡与协同关系进行研究。结果表明:(1)在2000～2015年,汉江流域土壤保持量在波动中下降,高值区位于汉江上游林地、草地交叉分布区域,低值区位于汉江中下游林地、耕地等单一聚集地类区;碳储量年际变化较小,其高低值分布与土壤保持量基本相同;食物供给量增长迅速,高值区位于中下游的平原区,低值区位于上游的山地和盆地区。(2)在权衡与协同分析中,碳储量与食物供给、土壤保持与食物供给之间以权衡关系为主,而碳储量与土壤保持以协同关系为主,各生态系统间权衡与协同关系存在空间异质性。(3)空间热点制图显示,2000～2015年0类服务热点区占比减少,主要地类为草地;1类服务热点区占比最大且呈增加趋势,主要地类为耕地,生态服务类型以食物供给为主;2类服务热点区有所减少,多分布在上游林地区域,服务类型为碳储存和土壤保持;3类服务热点区占比很少。该研究结果对揭示生态系统服务之间的区域差异有重要作用。     

基于水生态功能区的巢湖环湖带生态服务功能评价

水生态功能区被认为是流域生态环境保护、治理与修复的基本单元,以其为基础进行生态服务功能评估对于流域内的土地利用结构优化配置、生态环境保护、治理与修复等都有重要的意义。选取巢湖环湖带,采用物质量的方法,对其12种生态服务功能进行评价,其中陆域生态系统4种,水域生态系统8种。研究结果表明:(1)研究区生态系统服务功能空间差异明显,南部和东北部较高,西北部和东南部较低;而研究区单位面积生态服务功能西部较高,东部较低;(2)生态服务功能总量较高的区域,其单位面积生态服务功能并不一定高;(3)环湖带生态系统服务功能的管理和恢复既要考虑生态服务功能总量的大小,也要考虑单位面积生态服务功能的大小,依据实际情况区别对待,生态服务功能较强的地区,应积极发挥其生态功能的优势,在保护与治理并重的情况下充分发挥其生态服务功能;生态服务功能较弱的地区,应采取一定的措施,在保护的基础上对其生态服务功能进行恢复。     

南方丘陵山地带土壤保持功能及其经济价值时空变化特征

土壤保持是生态系统提供的重要调节服务之一,在区域侵蚀控制以及生态安全的维持方面具有不可替代的作用。以全国主体生态功能区划中"两屏三带"的南方丘陵山地带为研究对象,在遥感和地理信息系统的支持下,以2000、2005和2010年3期生态系统类型数据为主要数据源,运用通用土壤流失方程(Universal Soil Loss Equation, USLE)分析了南方丘陵山地带生态系统土壤保持功能,并对其经济价值进行动态核算。结果表明:10 a间,南方丘陵山地带土壤保持总量呈上升趋势,土壤保持总量上升了76.79×10⁷ t,森林、灌丛和农田生态系统是研究区土壤保持功能的主要贡献者,总贡献率3个年份分别为82.29%、82.59%和80.58%,不同生态系统土壤保持总量排序为森林> 灌丛> 农田> 草地> 湿地> 人工表面> 稀疏地,土壤保持能力排序为湿地> 草地> 灌丛> 森林> 农田> 人工表面> 稀疏地;10 a间,研究区土壤保持功能总经济价值增加了270.34×10⁸元,总经济价值中以保持土壤肥力价值为主;土壤保持功能经济价值的变化以轻微增加为主,其呈现增加的区域面积和价值增幅大于经济价值减少的区域面积和价值减幅。在对该区域生态系统进行保护的基础上,因地制宜地合理增加植被盖度对防治土壤侵蚀、保持土壤养分可以起到良好效果。     

Exporting natural capital: the foreign eco-footprint on Costa Rica and implications for sustainability

As the world economy ‘globalizes’, trade has become a major mechanism by which much of the human population supports its needs. While trade in resource commodities (natural income) can increase the well-being of people in both exporting and importing countries, it can also lead to depletion of natural capital and the loss of ecosystems integrity. In recent years, various researchers have attempted to address this problem using a consumption-based perspective on ecological change. Their work shows that the loss of ecosystem integrity in almost any region of the world can be attributed to both local and international consumer demand. This paper illustrates the utility of modified eco-footprint analysis in assessing export-related ecological change in Costa Rica. We quantify ecological footprint of consumers around the world on the productive ecosystems of Costa Rica, document the changing character of this footprint and highlight some of the linkages between production for export in Costa Rica and ecological degradation. We then discuss the implications of the increasing trade-based entanglement of nations for ecosystems and global sustainability.     

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation under forestation scenarios: options to improve management in the Vez watershed,NW Portugal

Ensuring forest protection and the delivery of forest ecosystem services is a central aim of the European Union’s biodiversity strategy for 2020. Therefore, accurate modelling and mapping of ecosystem services as well as of biodiversity conservation value is an important asset in support of spatial planning and policy implementation. The objectives of this study were to analyse the provision of the multiple ecosystem services under two forestation scenarios (eucalyptus/pine vs. oak) at the watershed scale and to evaluate their possible trade-offs with the biodiversity conservation value. The Vez watershed, in northwest Portugal, was used as case study area, in which soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) was applied to simulate the provision of hydrological services, biomass and carbon storage services. Biodiversity conservation value was based on nature protection regimes and on expert judgement applied to a land cover map. Results indicated large provision of ecosystem services in the high and low mountain sub-basins. The overall performance for water quantity and timing is better under the shrubland and oak forest scenarios, when compared to the eucalyptus/pine forest scenario, which perform better for flood regulation and erosion control services, especially in the low mountain sub-basin. The current shrubland dominated cover also shows good performance for the control of soil erosion. The oak scenario is the one with less trade-offs between forest services and biodiversity conservation. Results highlight SWAT as an effective tool for modelling and mapping ecosystem services generated at the watershed scale, thereby contributing to improve the options for land management.     

Direct and indirect effects of climate and fishing on changes in coastal ecosystem services: a historical perspective from the North Sea

Humanity depends on the marine environment for a range of vital ecosystem services, at global (e.g. climate regulation), regional (e.g. commercial fisheries) and local scales (e.g. coastal defence and recreation). At the same time, marine ecosystems have been exploited for centuries, and many systems today are under stress from multiple sources. Recent studies have shown how both climate change and fishing have caused long-term changes in the marine environment. However, there is still poor understanding of how these changes influence change in coastal ecosystem services. In this paper, an integrated modelling approach is used to assess how the final delivery of marine ecosystem services to coastal communities is influenced by the direct and indirect effects of changes in ecosystem processes brought about by climate and human impacts, using fisheries of the North Sea region as a case study. Partial least squares path analysis is used to explore the relationships between drivers of change, marine ecosystem processes and services (landings). A simple conceptual model with four variables—climate, fishing effort, ecosystem process and ecosystem services—is applied to the English North Sea using historic ecological, climatic and fisheries time series spanning 1924–2010 to identify the multiple pathways that might exist. As expected, direct and indirect links between fishing effort, ecosystem processes and service provision were significant. However, links between climate and ecosystem processes were weak. This paper highlights how path analysis can be used for analysing long-term temporal links between ecosystem processes and services following a simplified pathway.     

湖北省关键生态系统服务供需状况的时空变化研究

生态系统服务是改善自然生态和维持土地可持续利用的关键。该文基于生态系统服务的供需视角，从时空两个维度量化了城市化过程中生态系统服务的赤字和盈余，据此提出土地优化利用建议。以湖北省为例，选取水源涵养、PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐4种生态系统服务，评估了2010~2015年湖北省生态系统服务供需的盈缺情况及演变过程，并测算其平衡阈值。结果表明：（1）除了水源涵养服务供给充足外，PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐服务均处于赤字状态；（2）水源涵养服务的供需趋向平衡，而PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐服务的供需差异逐步扩大；（3）各类生态系统服务的供需空间异质性较大；（4）生态系统服务供需达到平衡所要求的绿地比阈值普遍上升，建设用地比阈值普遍下降。上述研究对生态系统服务供需的直观量化，为优化土地管理提供了科学依据；建议湖北省应重点关注城市化过程中PM10去除和碳排放控制的问题，适度增加城市绿地，合理控制建设用地扩张。     

Requirements for adaptive governance of groundwater ecosystem services: insights from Sandveld (South Africa), Upper Guadiana (Spain) and Spree (Germany)

The over-abstraction of aquifers and the modification of landscape–water systems often result in the degradation of groundwater resources and the loss of related ecosystem services. Many of these problems are associated with failure of governance and management regimes. Thus, groundwater resources require innovative approaches that deal with system complexity moving governments toward adaptive and integrated management. Vertical (hierarchical) and horizontal (cross-sectoral) integration structures are crucial characteristics of adaptive governance and support sustainable management of groundwater ecosystem services. The research objective of this article is to investigate linkages between these integration structures, the governance regime and the state of groundwater ecosystem services across three case studies: Sandveld (South Africa), Upper Guadiana (Spain) and Spree (Germany). First, we developed a set of criteria indicating vertical and horizontal integration and then applied a conceptual and analytical approach, the Management and Transition Framework, specifically developed to support a systematic and consistent investigation of policy and management processes. Results indicate that higher degrees of integration during management activities do not identify a direct improvement of groundwater ecosystem services. But evidence highlights that integration (1) opens up the political arena for environmental perspectives, (2) increases the quality of groundwater and conservation plans, (3) accelerates the implementation of policies, (4) mitigates conflicts between different groundwater users and (5) increases the awareness of different ecosystem services. Finally, we conclude that compared with other natural resources, groundwater management still lacks participation, multi-level interactions and sectoral integration, especially at higher levels of management.     

三峡库区水源涵养重要区生态系统格局动态演变特征

利用三期遥感分类数据为基础数据源,结合野外地面核查和生态空间分析方法,对三峡库区水源涵养重要区2000~2010年生态系统格局时空动态变化进行了分析。结果表明:研究区内各类生态系统空间分布差异较大,以森林和农田为主体生态系统;10a间,由于三峡水库蓄水淹没了大量农田和林地,导致森林生态系统和农田生态系统分别向湿地生态系统转化了179.99km2和191.27km2;其他生态系统(主要是人工表面)面积在时段内增加了506.63km2,主要是城镇建设占用部分森林和农田转换而来;时段内森林生态系统总的面积未发生较大减少主要是由于近年退耕还林、森林工程等生态工程的实施获得了大量补充;研究区后期的生态系统转化强度在逐渐增强,生态系统动态类型相互转化强度也显示出研究区生态系统类型的转化总体变差。     

Developing indicators of ecosystem condition using geographic information systems and remote sensing

Improvements in remote sensing technologies and the use of geographic information system (GIS), are increasingly allowing us to develop indicators that can be used to monitor and assess ecosystem condition and change at multiple scales. This paper presents global- and regional-level indicators developed by the World Resources Institute and collaborating partners using remote sensing and GIS. Presented as regional and global maps, these spatial indicators are ideal communication tools to raise awareness of the condition of the Earths ecosystems among different audiences. Global and regional spatial indicators not only inform us about the current condition of, and pressures on, ecosystems, but also about the likely capacity of the ecosystem to continue to provide goods and services to future generations. The increasing focus on integrating socio-economic and biological information with remote sensing and GIS technology can only help to further our understanding and capacity to manage ecosystems in a more sustainable manner.The author researched and wrote this paper while working for the World Resources Institute (WRI).     

A spatially explicit and quantitative vulnerability assessment of ecosystem service change in Europe

Environmental change alters ecosystem functioning and may put the provision of services to human at risk. This paper presents a spatially explicit and quantitative assessment of the corresponding vulnerability for Europe, using a new framework designed to answer multidisciplinary policy relevant questions about the vulnerability of the human-environment system to global change. Scenarios were constructed for a range of possible changes in socio-economic trends, land uses and climate. These scenarios were used as inputs in a range of ecosystem models in order to assess the response of ecosystem function as well as the changes in the services they provide. The framework was used to relate the impacts of changing ecosystem service provision for four sectors in relation to each other, and to combine them with a simple, but generic index for societal adaptive capacity. By allowing analysis of different sectors, regions and development pathways, the vulnerability assessment provides a basis for discussion between stakeholders and policymakers about sustainable management of Europe’s natural resources. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chinese Policies and Practices regarding Payments for Ecological Services in Watersheds

Watersheds provide a variety of ecological services including soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and biodiversity protection. However, activities in a fast-growing economy significantly impact the supply and demand of these watershed services. To mitigate these impacts, the concept of payment for environmental and ecosystem services from watersheds has emerged in global academic and policy circles. The governments and academic communities in China have increasingly described payments for ecological services from watersheds with the concept of watershed eco-compensation as it is urgent to protect watershed ecosystems. Watershed eco-compensation has proved to be one of the most economically effective means of solving environmental problems of watersheds to be adopted by the Chinese government. This paper presents an objective analysis of the Chinese market for watershed ecosystem services, including supply and demand for the services. It also summarizes Chinese policies on watershed eco-compensation, including relevant laws and regulations and fiscal policies. In addition, it presents a review of Chinese practices in watershed eco-compensation, including the analysis of an ecological construction project in Western China, inter-provincial watershed eco-compensation practices and plans, and payment for ecological services at the provincial and small watershed levels. Finally, it summarizes the key components of the process of payment in Chinese watershed eco-compensation. This discussion forms the basis of concluding suggestions for ecosystem services compensation and ecological protection in the large scale river basin.     

Benefits and costs of oil palm expansion in Central Kalimantan,Indonesia, under different policy scenarios

Deforestation and oil palm expansion in Central Kalimantan province are among the highest in Indonesia. This study examines the physical and monetary impacts of oil palm expansion in Central Kalimantan up to 2025 under three policy scenarios. Our modelling approach combines a spatial logistic regression model with a set of rules governing land use change as a function of the policy scenario. Our physical and monetary analyses include palm oil expansion and five other ecosystem services: timber, rattan, paddy rice, carbon sequestration, and orangutan habitat (the last service is analysed in physical units only). In monetary terms, our analysis comprises the contribution of land and ecosystems to economic production, as measured according to the valuation approach of the System of National Accounts. We focus our analysis on government-owned land which covers around 97 % of the province, where the main policy issues are. We show that, in the business-as-usual scenario, the societal costs of carbon emissions and the loss of other ecosystem services far exceed the benefits from increased oil palm production. This is, in particular, related to the conversion of peatlands. We also show that, for Central Kalimantan, the moratorium scenario, which is modelled based on the moratorium currently in place in Indonesia, generates important economic benefits compared to the business-as-usual scenario. In the moratorium scenario, however, there is still conversion of forest to plantation and associated loss of ecosystem services. We developed an alternative, sustainable production scenario based on an ecosystem services approach and show that this policy scenario leads to higher net social benefits including some more space for oil palm expansion.     

最小数据方法在舟曲县生态补偿中的应用

弄清补偿标准和新增生态系统服务供给量之间的关系是生态补偿研究中的关键问题.舟曲县现有的补偿是静态补偿,补偿标准低,没有很好地达到改善生态环境的目的.本文基于最小数据方法,以耕地和林地提供的水土保持量的差异表征生态系统服务,通过提供单位水土保持服务的机会成本的空间分布,推导出舟曲县森林水土保持的供给曲线,从而将补偿标准和新增水土保持服务的供给联系起来.同时对比了3种补偿标准下的退耕比例、生态补偿总资金需求和新增水土保持量.研究表明生态补偿在理论上可以提供舟曲县的水土保持能力.随着补偿标准的提高,新增水土保持量也在增加.当补偿标准为250元/亩时,退耕比例仅为8.26%,生态补偿总资金需求为1 930.03万元,新增水土保持量为4.69×104t;当补偿标准提高到518.63 元/亩时,退耕比例增加到49.54%,总资金需求为23 184.26万元,新增水土保持量为2.83×105t;当补偿标准增加到995.65 元/亩时,退耕比例可达到98.79%,总资金需求为87 340.95万元,可新增水土保持量达到5.65×105t.     

无锡市区耕地最低保有量测算及空间配置研究

耕地资源是社会经济稳定发展的物质基础。无锡市区近年来经济发展迅速，人均耕地面积仅7.3×10-3 hm2，粮食安全问题十分突出，人地矛盾十分尖锐。从粮食最低保有量的内涵出发，测算出无锡市区粮食最低保有量应为1.65×108 kg，进而通过选择粮食最低保有量、粮食复种指数等4个参数测算无锡市区2009～2020年耕地最低保有量为26 116 hm2。借助ArcGIS空间分析技术，选取耕地发展引导性和耕地发展约束性两类评价指标，对无锡市区现有耕地进行适宜性评价，将无锡市区耕地分为高度适宜区、中度适宜区、勉强适宜区、不适宜区4种类型。进而，结合耕地最低保有量，对耕地资源进行空间配置，发现锡山区的东北部、惠山区的西北部、新区的东南部等地区为无锡市区耕地最佳空间配置区，占最低耕地保有量的90％以上。〖