Dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide: so similar yet so different in evoking biological responses in saprophilous flies

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) are used by saprophilous insects to locate breeding sites (decaying organic matter), and by brood-site deceptive flowers to attract such insects. However, little is known about the relative importance of these two compounds in eliciting electrophysiological and behavioral responses in the insects. Here, we compared the relative attractiveness of DMDS and DMTS to saprophilous flies in field choice experiments and tested whether potential differences in field responses can be explained by differences in electrophysiological antennal responses to these compounds. Field experiments revealed that the attractiveness of a mixture of these compounds is due to DMTS alone. This result was confirmed by electroantennographic recordings in which flies of four tested species of Calliphoridae (Lucilia sericata, L. caesar, Calliphora vicina, Protocalliphora azurea) and one Muscidae (Musca domestica) respond clearly to DMTS, but not to DMDS. In house flies, however, DMTS elicited electrophysiological responses only, not reflected in behavioral assays. Despite the fact that DMTS and DMDS exhibit similar chemical structures, both the electroantennographic and field responses from saprophilous flies to these two compounds strongly differed. Our study suggests that oligosulfide-responsive saprophilous flies rely on DMTS and not DMDS for finding appropriate breeding sites and that DMTS and not DMDS could act as a key mediator for pollinator attraction in brood-site deceptive plants.     

Effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid on the settlement of larvae of the black chiton Katharina tunicata

Laboratory-cultured larvae of the black chiton Katharina tunicata (Wood), collected from central California in May and June of 1979 and 1980, settled preferentially on the encrusting coralline alga Lithothamnium sp. Metamorphosis, which involves the loss of the prototrochal ciliary band, occurred within a period of 2.5 h after larvae began crawling upon the alga. In response to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at a concentration of 10^-6 M, the lecithotrophic trochophore larvae ceased swimming and settled rapidly. Developmental metamorphosis did not follow settlement in the absence of encrusting coralline alga. However, when both GABA and Lithothamnium sp. were present, larval metamorphosis occurred within 2 h of settlement. Significantly different rates of settlement exist for sibling larvae of different ages; 12 d-old larvae responded more rapily and in greater numbers to treatment with GABA than 10 d-old larvae. Differences in settling rates are attributed to the onset of metamorphic competence.     

A light and electron microscope investigation of gametogenesis in Nicolea zostericola (Polychaeta: Terebellidae)

A light and electron microscope study was conducted on Nicolea zostericola (Oersted: Grube, 1860) to describe the processes of gametogenesis. N. zostericola is a monotelic species which spawns from 2 to 5 times over a period of 2 weeks at the end of its 1-year life span. The gonads consist of plates of cells bulging from beneath the peritoneum in the thoracic region of the body. Oogenesis has been divided into 3 phases: an ovarian phase in which gametogonia and primary oocytes are retained within the ovary, a follicular phase, in which oocytes are ovulated into the coelom surrounded by several layers of follicle cells and the vitellogenic phase, where individual oocytes rupture through the follicle cells and enter the coelomic fluid where cell growth and yolk synthesis occur. The combined ovarian and follicular phases have a duration of about 3 to 5 weeks and the vitellogenic phase about 5 to 6 months. Vitellogenesis is described on the ultrastructural level. Yolk synthesis involves the participation of the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum of the oocyte in possible combination with nutrient absorption from the coelomic fluid. Spermatogenesis involves the rupturing of masses of spermatogonia into the coelom from the testis, surrounded by peritoneal cells. Smaller clusters of spermatocytes are later released into the coelomic fluid where mitotic and meiotic divisions eventually produce flattened plates of sperm. The mature spermatozoan possesses an elongate head, atypical for most polychaetes.     

Resin embedments of quantitative meiofauna samples for ecological and structural studies — Description and application

In enumerating data for systematic and ecological studies on meiofauna, an unfortunate diversification exists in the methods used for observation, identification, preservation and curatorial treatment of various taxa. The application of transmission electron microscopy resin embedment techniques to whole, quantitative, extracted meiofauna samples is described here as a new method, which overcomes most of these problems. Slide-shaped resin blocks are produced by this method; they contain the mass-embedded meiofauna on one side and sand from the sample site on the other side; the latter can be used in studying sand-grain epigrowth of Protista, Fungi and Monera. Examples for the applicability of these slides to various meiobenthic studies are given for most taxa, but especially for Turbellaria, Annelida and Mystacocarida. Using this resin-slide technique, whole quantitative transects can be deposited as “ecotype material” in museums.     

Reducing the environmental impact of coal-washing practice in Australia

All Australian coal for export is washed — that is, the low-grade high-ash material is separated out and disposed of at the washery site. The coarse rejects are generally placed in embankments and the tailings are pumped into settling ponds. These methods of waste disposal can create environmental problems. In addition, they represent a significant energy loss, because about one-third of the waste material is combustible and is thus a potentially valuable source of energy. Laboratory studies at the CSIRO Division of Fossil Fuels at North Ryde, New South Wales, have shown that energy can be successfully recovered from washery wastes by the process of fluidized-bed combustion. A pilot fluidized-bed combustor, with a capacity of 2 tonnes/hour, is undergoing prolonged trial at the Clutha washery near Camden, New South Wales, in a joint project between the Joint Coal Board and CSIRO. The results from the pilot plant tests have provided the basis for a conceptual design and feasibility study for a full-scale tailings treatment plant. This study has indicated that fluidized-bed combustion:

1. offers an environmentally attractive and economically competitive alternative to the disposal of tailings in settling ponds, and
2. can be used to generate large quantities of energy from the wastes, reducing the energy lost in coal washing from around 16% to 6% of the coal mined.

     

Comparison of sterol composition of some Baltic Sea and Black Sea mussels

Sterol composition of three Baltic Sea mussels (Mytilus edulis, Cardium glaucum, Mya arenaria) was compared with the sterol composition of three biologically closely related mussels from the Black Sea (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Cardium edule, Mya arenaria). The qualitative sterol composition of the mussels studied was similar, but some quantitative differences were found.     

Ecology of the northern Red Sea crinoids and their Epi- and Endozoic fauna

Fourteen crinoid species are found along the coral reefs of the northern Red Sea that form aggregations of different species at various depths. The shallowest aggregation consists partly of Lamprometra klunzingeri and Capillaster multiradiatus, occurring subtidal to a depth of 2 to 5 m. Of this group, Heterometra savignii inhabits depths down to 12–15 m. Further down, another group of 10-armed crinoids occurs, dominated by Decametra chadwicki and Oligometra serripinna. The deepest aggregation of crinoids occurs at 45 m; its most common members are Colobometra arabica and Comaster distinctus. Feeding on micro- and nanoplankton, shallow-water crinoids show a circadian activity rhythm; in deeper aggregations (10 to 12 m), this behaviour changes with decreasing illumination, to a diurnal activity rhythm. The symbiotic animals living on crinoids comprise 27 taxons, among them Copepoda (6 species), Mollusca (2 species), Polychaeta (11 species, especially Myzostomida); Ophiurida (1 species), Crustacea, Decapoda (6 species); and the clingfish Lepadichthys lineatus. These symbiotic animals form food webs at various depths, according to the distribution of their crinoid host. The occurrence of Indo-West Pacific and Mediterranean commensals on the same crinoid in the Gulf of Aqaba is of special interest.     

New epizooic symbioses between sponges of the genera Plakortis and Xestospongia in cryptic habitats of the Caribbean

Three new cases of sponge symbiosis between species of Plakortis and Xestospongia were found in reef caves and mesophotic reef habitats of the Caribbean. Plakortis sp. 1 from the Bahamas associates exclusively with Xestospongia deweerdtae which was originally described living freely on the deep fore-reef and caves of Jamaica. In addition, we found Plakortis sp. 2 from Puerto Rico which associates with both X. deweerdtae and a different Xestospongia sp. Sponge specimens were identified using cytochrome oxidase subunit 1, 28S rRNA and 18S rRNA gene sequence fragments, spicule analysis, and histological sections with SEM. Unlike previous sponge pairs, Xestospongia spp. not only grew as a thin veneer of tissue over the Plakortis host sponge but through the mesohyl, forming inner channels (0.1–1 cm) that may provide a benefit by facilitating more efficient water transport through the dense Plakortis tissue. Symbioses with both Plakortis spp. were documented from an early recruit stage through adulthood. Spicule measurements conducted on symbiotic versus free-living X. deweerdtae revealed significantly smaller spicule sizes for symbiotic individuals, suggesting a cost in terms of silicon availability, or a benefit in terms of a lower investment in skeleton synthesis for support. This study reveals new specialized symbiotic associations between distantly related sponge genera that likely represent an alternative strategy of adaptation for life in reef caves and mesophotic reefs.     

Localization and biochemical characterization of pharyngeal protease in the polychaetous annelid Glycera convoluta

In Glycera convoluta Keferstein, pharyngeal protease is secreted by the glandular epithelial cells, as clearly demonstrated by microscopic observation of the digestion of a prestained gelatin film by fresh tissue sections of the organ. The enzyme, extracted by affinity chromatography on Sepharose-?-aminocaproïc-D-tryptophan, acts on substrates hydrolyzable by α-chymotrypsin such as N-benzoyl-L-tyrosine ethyl ester and carboxyl-propionyl-phenylalanine-p-nitroanilide, and can be considered as a chymotrypsin-like enzyme.     

Toxicity of ammonia,nitrite ion,nitrate ion,and orthophosphate to Mercenaria mercenaria and Crassostrea virginica

The 96-h lethal tolerance limits of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria (Linné) and the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) to ammonia, nitrite ion, nitrate ion, and orthophosphate were defined. Sublethal effects of the chemicals upon the rates at which the shellfish removed algal cells from suspension were also studied. In comparison with other marine and aquatic species which have been studied, hard clams and oysters are extremely tolerant.     

Density and composition of heterotrophic bacterial populations in North Sea sediments

The bacteria from 119 sediment samples collected off the Belgian and Dutch North Sea coast were enumerated on marine agar. Geographical and seasonal variations were observed. The colony formers were mainly obligate aerobes. Coliform organisms were relatively rare. An exhaustive analysis of a few samples revealed a great number of species belonging to different taxonomic groups. A survey of physiological and biochemical characteristics of 71 isolates is presented.     

The trophic role of glycolic acid in coastal seawater. I. Heterotrophic metabolism in seawater and bacterial cultures

Glycolic acid, a known algal excretory product, represents a potentially important energy source for heterotrophic bacteria in marine waters. Measurements of heterotrophic uptake and mineralization by the natural microbes in the plankton indicate quantitative use of glycolic acid comparable to other common microbial substrates. This activity shows vertical and horizontal variations that correlate in a general way with primary productivity. Glycolic acid appears to be present at higher concentrations than other low molecular weight substrates, and it also shows a lower rate of turnover. It is mineralized (respired) to a greater extent than other recorded substrates, an average of 70% of total uptake. Two-thirds of a total of 141 colonies of bacteria cultured from seawater on marine agar proved capable oftaking up and respiring glycolic acid. These same bacteria, however, were unable to utilize glycolic acid for growth when it was the sole carbon source. Glycolate may therefore occur at higher concentrations and show erratic fluctuations in natural waters because microbial use is not tied to glycolate production but to the presence of other substrates. The fact that so many bacteria are able to metabolize it indicates a possibly important trophic role as an energy source. It is suggested that glycolic acid may be a major source of energy for active transport of other substrates by marine bacteria.     

Isolation of a new toxin from the sponge Latrunculia magnifica in the Gulf of Aquaba (Red Sea)

The sponge Latrunculia magnifica was found to be toxic for fish. A toxin has been isolated from this sponge by organic extraction-column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography. Several chemical properties of the toxin were determined by spectroscopic analysis. Toxicity tests were performed on the fish Gambusia affinis. In vitro experiments showed the toxin to be a cholinesterase inhibitor.     

Shell parameters in relation to zonation in mediterranean limpets

The relation of shell form to habitat in the Mediterranean limpets Patella caerulea (L.) and P. lusitanica (Gmelin) was investigated. P. caerulea shells were significantly longer, broader, but lower in height than P. lusitanica shells. The regression of the ratio (length plus breadth)/2 on the height of the shell was found to characterize the two limpet populations, with a small degree of overlap reflecting the distribution of the two limpets on the shore.     

Estimation of coral growth-rates from laboratory 45Ca-incorporation rates

Laboratory ⁴⁵Ca-incorporation rates in hermatypic coral skeletons have previously been used successfully as an index of physiological function. This laboratory method would become more meanigful if it also provided an absolute measure of coral growth rates. In two coral species, Porites compressa and Pocillopora damicornis, ⁴⁵Ca incorporation rates were obtained from short (0.5 h) laboratory incubations using apical (determined as fast growing) portions of freshly collected coral branches. ⁴⁵Ca exchange across the coenosarc was not significant and not corrected for, whereas diurnal fluctuation in ⁴⁵Ca in Pocillopora damicornis was significant and a necessary correction. A calculated surface area is used to express calcification rate. Typical growth rates calculated from the ⁴⁵Ca-incorporation rates were 20 and 6 mm/year for Porites compressa and Pocillopora damicornis, respectively. These rates are considerably higher than those previously obtained in the laboratory, and compare favorably with field growth rates — 24 and 14 mm/year, respectively.     

Reproduction and developmental variability in the opisthobranchTenellia pallida

Pelagic and non-pelagic development occurs within a single population of the nudibranchTenellia pallida (Alder and Hancock) from South Carolina (USA). Both developmental types occurred simultaneously, under identical conditions, and without the aid of nurse eggs. Adults laid either ≈70 μm diameter eggs that hatched as pelagic (planktotrophic?) veligers in 68 to 122 h, or ≈100 μm diameter eggs that became well-developed veligers, metamorphosed within their egg capsules, and hatched as shelled juveniles in 140 to 190 h (15°C, 30‰ S). Adults that produced pelagic larvae laid more eggs per day and per egg mass and twice the daily egg volume produced by adults of the opposing type.     

Environmental problems of coal production in the United Kingdom with particular reference to the Yorkshire coalfield

This paper reviews the environmental problems associated with the coal-mining industry on the Yorkshire coalfield. The main environmental problems are identified as being caused by:

1. The need to dispose of large quantities of colliery waste or ‘spoil’, in an environmentally acceptable manner.
2. Derelict and despoiled land, including the problems caused by the re-working of old tips for their coal content.
3. Opencast coal mining.
4. Subsidence.
5. Transportation of coal and coal waste.

These problems are reviewed in the context of the role of coal in meeting the United Kingdom's energy needs and the framework of environmental control within which the coal-mining industry has to operate. Particular stress is laid on the fact that the Yorkshire coalfield, as with the majority of coalfields, is an old one with a legacy of inherited dereliction. Whilst modernisation of the mining industry is proceeding there have not been parallel developments put in hand to cope with the changing nature of the environmental problems resulting from the modernisation of the industry. Particular stress is placed on the need to dispose of the greatly increased quantities of spoil now being produced.     

Factors regulating population dynamics of the marine bivalve Gemma gemma: intraspecific competition and salinity

A population of Gemma gemma (Totten) was investigated for 6 yr (1978–1983) in Connecticut, USA to determine the relationship between population fluctuations, life tables of successive cohorts and factors affecting life table parameters. Seasonal cycles occurred from 1978–1981. Although density was not abnormally low in summer of 1982, the population declined rapidly thereafter because individuals present during the reproductive season were smaller than the minimal size for reproduction. Forecasts of population size from a time series model based on past densities were compared to forecasts from the intrinsic rates of growth from four separate clam life tables. The latter approach was less precise but more consistent at successfully predicting temporal trends in population abundance. Two factors were identified that potentially controlled population density and structure during the study. Correlational evidence indicated that intraspecific competition between juveniles and adults was intense in 1978 but was reduced during subsequent years. This interaction reduced the size and subsequent fecundity of the young-of-the-year. Correlational evidence also indicated that low salinity in spring of 1978, 1979, 1982 and 1983 reduced juvenile survival, but not that of adults. Qualitative evidence indicated that a third factor, predation, might also have affected G. gemma's population size and structure.     

Molecular characterization of symbiotic algae (Symbiodinium spp.) in soritid foraminifera (Sorites orbiculus) and a scleractinian coral (Orbicella annularis) from St John,US Virgin Islands

The exchange of Symbiodinium symbionts among scleractinian and soritid hosts could facilitate acclimatization to changing conditions by establishing novel symbiotic unions better tuned to prevailing conditions. In this study, we compare the communities of Symbiodinium spp. in neighboring populations of Orbicella annularis and Sorites orbiculus from St. John, US Virgin Islands, using operational taxonomic unit (OTU) clustering of cloned internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) rDNA sequences. We tested for partitioning of Symbiodinium OTUs by host and depth within and between two sites to explore the potential for symbiont exchange between hosts and light-dependent microhabitat specialization. An apparent lack of overlap in Symbiodinium communities (13 OTUs representing 7 clades) hosted by O. annularis and S. orbiculus suggests that exchange among these hosts does not occur. A low number of novel clade G ITS-2 sequences were found in one O. annularis and one S. orbiculus. A phylogenetic analysis of these sequences revealed them to be sub-clade G2 Symbiodinium, which are most commonly hosted by excavating clionid sponges. A permutational MANOVA revealed within host differences in the partitioning of Symbiodinium OTUs by site but not depth. This finding highlights the potential roles of either dissimilar environmental conditions between sites, or at least partial separation between populations, in determining the types of Symbiodinium contained in different hosts on a spatial scale of a few kilometers.