THE ECONOMICS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

In many parts of the Third World, projects are being developed to test such renewable energy systems as biogas plants and solar cell arrays for powering pumps and grinders. Virtually nowhere, however, has adequate work been done to determine if these systems are worth their costs. This paper outlines the cost-benefit techniques which allow systems to be evaluated from the standpoint of individual buyers (financial analysis) and the society as a whole (economic analysis). Special attention is given to problems of particular importance in reviewing energy systems, including local measurement of costs and benefits, determination of investors' discount rates, shadow-pricing and allowance for social costs. Detailed cost-benefit analyses are provided for two representative systems: a family-scale Indian biogas plant and a 5.5 kW solar cell irrigation pump on the borders of Lake Chad. The family-scale biogas plant does not appear to be profitable in either financial or economic terms under any plausible sets of assumptions. The solar cell pump has positive net benefits by economic (if not financial) measures, but is unlikely soon to be competitive with diesel power for most applications. At best, some of these devices might ultimately become competitive with expensive commercial energy. Such devices will therefore be of interest first to people now using substantial amounts of such energy – that is, the relatively wealthy. Only much later might significant benefits begin to filter down to the poor. In the light of these findings renewed attention should be given to meeting basic energy needs through less sophisticated systems. By finding systems whose benefits are commensurate with their costs, and whose costs are within reach of the poor, it may be possible to provide more energy to those most in need of it. Dans de nombreuses parties du Tiers Monde, des projets sont en cours d'exécution en vue d'évaluer des systèmes en matière d'énergie de remplacement, tels que des usines de gaz de fermentation et des assemblages de cellules solaires pour activer pompes et broyeurs. Toutefois, il semblerait qu'il n'y ait eu nulle part aucune étude valable permettant de déterminer si ces systèmes justifient leur coût. Cet article relève les techniques de coût-utilité qui permettent d'évaluer ces systèmes du point de vue des acheteurs individuels (analyse financière) et de la société dans son ensemble (analyse économique). En analysant ces systèmes, l'article souligne des problèmes d'importance particulière, y compris l'évaluation locale des coûts et profits, la détermination des taux d'actualisation d'investissement, l'estimation des prix virtuels et l'établissement de marges de coûts sociaux. Des analyses détaillées de coût-utilité sont présentées pour deux systèmes concrets: une usine de gaz de fermentation indienne à l'échelle de la famille, et une pompe d'irrigation à cellules solaires de 5,5 kW sur les rives du lac Chad. L'usine de gaz de fermentation à l'échelle de la famille ne semble ni financièrement, ni économiquement rentable quelque soient les termes plausibles des hypothèses. La pompe à cellules solaires offre des profits positifs nets selon des critères économiques (sinon financiers) mais, dans la plupart des cas, elle ne semble pas pouvoir concurrencer le moteur diesel dans un proche avenir. Au mieux, quelques-unes de ces installations peuvent à la longue concurrencer l'énergie commerciale à prix élevé. Par conséquent, elles seront d'intérêt particulier tout premièrement aux usagers de grande quantité de cette énergie, c'est-à-dire ceux possédant des moyens relativement élevés. Ce n'est que bien plus tard que les classes défavorisées pourront commencer à bénéficier sensiblement des profits qui en résulteront. Sur la base de ces données, les organisations s'intéressant aux classes défavorisées peuvent se pencher à nouveau sur la manière de répondre aux besoins essentiels en matière d'énergie en utilisant des systèmes plus simples: bois appartenant aux villages, fours à bois améliorés, pompes et broyeurs à pédales ou à bras, pompes foulantes hydrauliques, etc. En conçevant des systèmes dont les profits sont proportionnels aux coûts et dont les coûts sont à la portée des classes défavorisées, il se peut que l'on puisse mettre plus d'énergie à la disposition de ceux qui en ont le plus besoin. En muchas partes del Tercer Mundo se han llevado a cabo proyectos para ensayar sistemas de energía renovables tales como plantas de biogas, y celdas solares para operar bombas y molinos. Sin embargo practicamente en ninguna parte se ha hecho el esfuerzo apropiado para determinar si estos sistemas valen lo que cuestan. Este artículo esboza las técnicas de beneficio-costo para evaluar dichos sistemas desde el punto de vista del usuario individual (análisis financiero) y del de la sociedad como un todo (análisis económico). Se da especial atención a los problemas de importancia particular en el análisis de sistemas de energía, incluyendo mediciónes locales de costos y beneficios, determinación de la tasa de descuento del inversionista, precios-sombra y costos sociales. Detallados análisis de beneficio-costo se proveen para dos sistemas representativos: una planta de biogas en escala familiar y una bomba de agua operada por celadas solares de 5.5 kW al borde del Lago Chad. La planta de biogas a escala familiar parece no ser rentable financieramente ni económicamente bajo ninguna serie de hipótesis realistas. La bomba de celdas solares tiene un benefico económico positivo (aunque no financiero), pero es poco provable que sea competitivo con el motor diesel para la mayoría de las aplicaciones. En el mejor de los casos, alguno de estos sistemas pueden ser competitivos con una energía comercial cara. Estos sistemas en consecuencia serán de gran interés primeramente para las personas que hacen uso intensivo de energía, esto es, las personas relativamente adineradas. Pueda qui solo mucho despues beneficios significativos lleguen a los pobres. A la luz de estos resultados debe ponerse renovada atención a satisfacer las necesidades básicas de energía a través de sistemas menos sofisticados. Pueda que sea posible proveer mas energía a los que más necesitan de ella si se buscan sistemas cuyo beneficios sea proporcionados a sus costos y que dichos costos esten al alcance de los pobres.     

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY - PROSPECTIVE RENEWABLE SOURCE OF POWER

This paper presents a general overview of the problems relating to the harnessing of ocean thermal energy. Emphasis is laid on resources, technology, and environmental impact. It is stressed that the production of power from ocean thermal energy is technologically feasible, economically competitive with other alternative energy systems and not unduly harmful to the environment. Discussion centers on an assessment of the exploitable energy contained in ocean thermal gradients as well as the fundamentals of the technology needed to utilize this potential energy source. The theory of operation, materials and construction considerations and biofouling are examined for the closed- and open-cycle ocean thermal plant designs. A historical review of attempts to harness this source of energy is presented with emphasis on current reasearch. The potential this energy source has for effects on and damage to the ocean environment is examined.     

JAMAICA - A CASE STUDY OF ENERGY PLANNING

The analysis shows the impact of the 'New International Energy Order' on Jamaica, a developing country almost totally dependent on imported oil for satisfying national energy demand. The energy supply/demand situation between 1961 and 1976 and the structure of energy consumption by major sectors of the economy are discussed. The high income elasticity of commercial energy demand and the increase in the energy intensity of the economy is directly related to expansion of the alumina industry. The structural problems of decoupling GDP and energy growth are indicated. In particular, the impact of the 'New Energy Order' on the development prospects of major bauxite/alumina producing countries which are deficient in indigenous primary energy resources is assessed. Finally, the indigenous resource base is outlined and the major elements of the five-year (1978–1982) national energy plan summarized.     

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOLAR AND RENEWABLE ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

High costs of all commercial (especially imported) fuels have had especially severe impacts on the developing nations and, within these, on the most disadvantaged regions and socio-economic groups. Improving the security of supply while stabilizing prices has become a major energy-economic need. For the less developed nations this particularly calls for greater indigenous energy production and improved regional supply without massive capital commitments. Solar and renewable sources have a critical part to play in this. Certain of these appear promising for immediate development. For the longer term their potentials are far greater — but economic acceptance requires changed evaluation methods. Les pays en développement, et parmi eux les régions et groupes socioéconomiques les plus défavorisés, ont fortement ressenti les incidences particulièrement graves de la hausse des prix des combustibles commerciaux (et plus spécialement, des combustibles importés). S'assurer plus attentivement de l'approvisionnement tout en contenant le niveau des prix est devenu un impératif de leur politique énergético-économique. En ce qui concerne ces pays, cet effort requiert en particulier une production plus abondante d'énergie locale et une amélioration des approvisionnements régionaux sans engagements de capitaux démesurés. Les sources d'énergie solaire et d'énergie de remplacement ont un rôle significatif à jouer dans ce domaine. Quelques-unes d'entre elles destinées à certaines utilisations semblent pouvoir être mises en valeur dans l'immédiat. A longue échéance, leur potentiel est encore d'une plus grande portée. Cependant, pour les rendre rentables, leur méthodes d'évaluation serait à repenser. El alto costo de los combustibles (especialmente los importados) ha tenido un impacto especialmente severo en los paises en desarrollo, particularmente en las regiones y los grupos socioeconómicos que se encuentran en situación desventajosa. Mejorar la seguridad del suministro procurando al mismo tiempo mantener los precios estables se ha convertido en una necesidad importante dentro de la economía de la energía. Para los paises menos desarrollados esto significa especialmente desarrollar recursos energéticos propios y mejorar el suministro regional sin comprometer capital en forma masiva. Los recursos renovables (energiá solar) tienen un rol de importancia crítica y algunos de ellos parecen promisorios para su desarrollo immediato. Para el largo plazo el potencial de estos recursos es mucho mas grande aún — pero su aceptación económica requiere todos de evaluación nuevos.     

ENERGY SOURCES IN CHINA - PRESENT AND FUTURE

In 1979 China produced 640 million tons coal equivalent (TCE) of energy. Although this was sufficient to meet its demand of 586 million TCE in 1979, the Chinese Government is anticipating a difficult struggle for energy self-sufficiency in the next few years as demand increases rapidly owing to modernization efforts in the Chinese economy. The exploitation of coal will have highest priority in the Chinese energy development plan, followed by hydroelectricity. Petroleum and natural gas will be used mainly as raw materials for the chemical industry and as fuel for internal combustion engines. The institution of conservation measures coupled with necessary adjustments in the economic and industrial structures will also be given special attention in the energy plan. New and renewable resources of energy such as biomass, solar, wind, tidal wave and geothermal energies have played important roles in the various regions of the country where conditions are favourable and will continue to be developed. Nuclear energy will also be developed in industrially developed areas with acute shortages of power. Overall, it is projected that in the next twenty years the production of conventional energy must be doubled in order to satisfy the increasing demand. Capital resources remain the principal obstacle in such efforts. China will need external financial assistance, in the form of joint ventures, compensation trade or long-term loans to develop the abundant but relatively unexploited energy resources. En 1979, la quantité d'énergie produite en Chine représentait 640 millions de tonnes-équivalent charbon (tec). Bien cette quantité fut suffisante pour répondre à une demande de 586 millions de tec en 1979, le Gouvernement de la Chine anticipe une lutte soutenue pour arriver à une auto-suffisance en matière d énergie dans les quelques prochaines années alors que la demande augmente rapidement dû aux efforts de modernisation de l'économie chinoise. Dans le plan énergétique de la Chine, l'expoitation du charbon gardera une place de premier plan suivi de l'hydro-électricité. Le pétrole et le gaz naturel seront employés principalement comme matières premières dans l'industrie chimique et comme carburant pour les engins à combustion interne. Une attention particulière sera accordée dans le plan énergétique à l'institution de mesures de conservation, alliées aux ajustements nécessaires dans les structures économiques et industrielles. Les sources d'énergie nouvelles et renouvelables, telles que la biomasse, les énergies solaire, éolienne, marémotrice et géothermique ont joué des rôles importants dans de nombreuses régions du pays où les conditions sont favorables et continueront à être mises en valeur. L'utilisation de l'énergie nuclèaire sera aussi intensifiée dans les régions industriellement développées dans lesquelles se fait sentir de manière aiguë la penurie d'énergie électrique. Dans l'ensemble, on prévoit que dans les vingt prochaines années, la production conventionnelle d'énergie doit être doublée pour répondre à une demande droissante. Les capitaux demeurent un obstacle sérieux à ces efforts. La Chine aura besoin d'assistance financière extérieure sous forme d'associations en participation, d'échanges compensatoires, de prèts à long terme afin de mettre en valeur ses ressources énergétiques abondantes mais relativement inexploitées. En 1979 China produjo 640 millones de tonelades equivalentes de carbón que fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de energia de aquel año. Sin embargo el gobierno anticipa dificultades en mantener la autosuficiencia en energia en los próximos años debido al rápido aumento de la demanda causada por la modernización de la economía. Dentro del plan de desarrollo energético, la explotación del carbón tendrá la máxima prioridad seguido por la hidroelectricidad. El petróleo y el gas natural serán usados principalmente como insumo en la industria química y como combustible en los motores de combustión interna. Las medidas de conservación de energia y ajustes en la estructura de la industria y la economia en general recibirán especial atención. Los recursos nuevos y renovables han jugado un rol importante en varias regiones del país y conti nuarán siendos desarrollados. Le energia nuclear también se desarrollará en las áreas industriales que sufren carestia en electricidad. En general, se proyecta que en los próximos 20 años se doblará la producción de energia convencional para satisfacer la demanda creciente La falta de capital será la restricción principal para tal esfuerzo. China necesitará en consecuencia asistencia financiera externa en la forma de inversiones compartidas y préstamos a largo plazo para desarrollar los abundantes pero relativamente inexplotados recursos energéticos.     

THIRD WORLD ENERGY OPTIONS AND THE ROLE OF THE SOLAR ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Developing countries are now in a position to choose between further commitments to petroleum and development of sustainable solar resources. Many solar options are ready and some are already economically competitive, particularly for use in rural areas where most people in developing countries reside. Third World countries are becoming cautious about imitating industrial nations, and in some cases, are beginning to map out unique strategies based on their indigenous cultures and resources. Transitions to solar technologies will not be made without difficulty, however, as baseline data on energy needs and on availability of renewable forms of energy only marginally exist. This paper presents information on the potential and current status of a range of solar technologies. The United States Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) is advancing a number of technologies that will have direct impact on life in developing countries; but in addition has established a programme to deal specifically with the use of renewable energy resources in developing countries. Technical development, planning, information compilation, and institution building are fundamental parts of the effort. As a research institute, SERI, in particular, wants to ensure that adequate attention is given to the technical problems associated with the use of renewables in developing countries. Too often, these problems are not recognized as being worthy of scientific attention resulting in the design and installation of less than optimal equipment. The limited resources available require optimal allocation and intelligent application. In addition, SERI manages bilateral assistance programmes with developing countries under the auspices of the US Department of Energy and the US Agency for International Development. Les pays en développement ont maintenant la possibilité de choisir entre un système basé sur le pétrole ou la mise en valeur des ressources solaires potentielles. Plusieurs systèmes de récupération de l'énergie solaire sont utilisables et quelques-uns sont déjà économiquement compétitifs, particulièrement dans les régions rurales où se rencontre la majeure partie de la population des pays en développement. Les pays du Tiers Monde exercent de plus en plus une certaine prudence à imiter les pays industriels et, dans certains cas, commencent à formuler des stratégies basées uniquement sur leurs ressources et cultures propres. Cependant, le passage à l'énergie solaire ne se fera pas sans difficulté étant donné que les données de base sur les besoins énergétiques et sur la disponibilité des formes renouvelables d'énergie sont marginales. Cet article donne des informations sur le potentiel et l'état actuel de toute une gamme de technologies solaires. L'Institut de recherche d'énergie solaire (IRES) des Etats-Unis est en train de promouvoir un certain nombre de technologies qui auront une portée directe sur le mode de vie dans les pays en développement. II a aussi élaboré un programme spécial concernant l'utilisation des ressources énergétiques renouvelables dans les pays en développement. Le développement technique, la planification, le rassemblement de l'information et la mise en place d'institutions représentent des composantes fondamentales de cet effort. En tant qu'institut de recherche, IRES en particulier voudrait s'assurer que les problèmes techniques concernant l'utilisation des énergies renouvelables dans les pays en développement soient étudiés sérieusement. Trop souvent ces problèmes ne sont pas reconnus comme méritant une étude scientifique ce qui entraîne la conception et la construction d'un équipement qui n'est pas le meilleur. Les ressources disponibles étant limitées, elles requièrent une répartition optimale ainsi qu'une utilisation intelligente. De plus, IRES dirige des programmes d'assistance bilatérale avec les pays en développement sous les auspices du Département de l'énergie et de l'Agence pour le développement international des Etats-Unis. Los países en desarrollo están ahora en la posibilidad de escoger entre una mayor dependencia del petróleo y el desarrollo de energía solar. Muchas alternativas de uso de energía solar están disponibles y algunas son economicamente competitivas, especialmente en las zonas rurales donde reside la mayor parte de la población de los países en desarrollo. Los países del tercer mundo están mas cautos en imitar los países industrializados, y en algunos casos, están empezando a establecer estrategias basadas en su cultura autóctona y sus recursos. Sin embargo la transición a la tecnología solar no va a ser fácil puesto que la información básica sobre las necesidades de energía y la disponibilidad de recursos renovables es muy escasa. Este artículo examina el potencial y la situación actual de las tecnologías de aplicación de energía solar. En los Estados Unidos, el Instituto de Investigación de Energía Solar (IIES) esta proponiendo ciertas tecnologías que tendrán impacto directo sobre la vida en los países en desarrollo, adicionalmente ha establecido un programa para tratar especificamente el uso de recursos renovables de energía en países en desarrollo. Desarrollo técnico, planificación, procesamiento de información y organización de instituciones son partes fundamentales de este esfuerzo. EL IIES quiere asegurar que se dé adecuada atención a los problemas técnicos relacionados con el uso de recursos renovables en los países en desarrollo. A menudo estos problemas se consideran como no importantes para ser objeto de investigación científica y como resultado se diseñan e instalan equipos que no son óptimos. Sin embargo los recursos limitados requieren que se hagan asignaciones óptimas de recursos y aplicaciones inteligentes. Además, el IIES administra programas de asistencia bilateral con los países en desarrollo bajo los auspicios del Departamento de Energía y la Agencia para el Desarrollo Internacional de los Estados Unidos de América.     

THE PLIGHT OF THE URBAN RESERVOIR: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: This paper details the increasing tendency to overdevelop lands adjacent to public reservoirs. The impact on water quality of the pollutant load carried in surface runoff from developed lands is described as well as the depreciation in recreational experience due to loss of scenic horizons. The case study, Spruce Run Reservoir in Clinton, New Jersey, included population and demand projections. Land speculation and proposed development are evaluated on a physical constraint basis. Areas of conflict are outlined and conflict resolutions proposed.     

THE ENERGY SITUATION IN THE ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT

This article reviews the present energy situation in the Arab Republic of Egypt and planning for future development. The article presents energy demand and supply statistics reviewing current and past consumption and production as well as projections through the year 2000. Institutional changes introduced to enhance Egypt's capabilities in the fields of analysis, assessment and programming of energy are described, including the establishment of the Supreme Council of Energy and the regrouping of several ministries. The major constraints affecting Egyptian energy policies are reviewed, including the difficulty of changing the heavily subsidized price of fuel without affecting the overall social balance, limits on indigenous resources and rapid growth of demand. The article examines the critical energy issues that are being addressed in the context of a broad national energy planning effort. Cet article passe en revue la situation énergétique actuelle en République arabe d'Egypte et al planification pour la mise en valeur des ressources dans ce domaine. II présente des statistiques sur l'offre et la demande en énergie tout en examinant la production et la consommation actuelles et antérieures ainsi que les projections jusqu'à l'an 2000. L'article décrit les changements institutionnels qui ont été entroduits afin de mettre en valeur les capacités de l'Egypte dans les domaines de l'analyse, l'évaluation et la programmation en matière d'énergie, y compris la création d'un Conseil suprême de l'énergie et le regroupement de plusieurs ministères. Les contraintes majeures qui affectent l'Egypte dans le domaine de la politique énergétique sont examinées, y compris la difficulté de reconsidérer le prix du pétrole déjà fortement subventionné sans affecter l'équilibré social général, les limites des ressources indigènes et la croissance accélérée de la demande. L'article examine également, dans le domaine de l'énergie, les aspects critiques qui se situent dans le cadre d'un effort de planification énergétique au niveau national. Este articulo examine la situación de la energía y la planifcación de su futuro desarrollo en la República Arabe de Egipto. Las estadisticas sobre demanda y oferta de energía y su proyección al año 2000 son presentados. Se describe los cambios institucionales introducidos para acrecentar la capacidad del pais en analisar y programmar el desarrollo energético incluyendo el establecimiento del Consejo Supremo de Energia. Políticas de energía relacionadas con el subsidio de combustibles, el rápido crecimiento de la demanda y los limitados recursos son examinados. El artículo termina con la revisión de problemas críticos enfrentados en la planificación energética del país.     

WATER MARKETING: THE CASE OF INDIAN RESERVED RIGHTS1

ABSTRACT: Water marketing is an increasing important topic for policy makers and water managers, especially in the Western United States. Indian reserved rights (or Winters rights) differ in significant ways from water rights under most state prior appropriation systems. As Winters rights are quantified, a number of issues are emerging concerning the extent to which these water rights may be marketed, particularly to off-reservation users. This paper will review the evolution of Indian reserved water rights and discuss key issues surrounding the marketing of these rights.     

EVALUATING INLAND WATERWAY NAVIGATION IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS: THE CASE OF THE BONNEVILLE LOCK

ABSTRACT: The period of time from identification of a possibly desirable inland waterway transportation project to its actual implementation has been observed to be inordinately long. It is Hypothesized that at Least one cause of delays in project approval and implementation is a analytical credibility associated with project feasibility analysis conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. This paper examines this hypothesis in terms of the proposal to construct a new, expanded lock at the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. The principle finding is that the analysis conducted by the Corps is conceptually flawed, methodologically questionable, internally inconsistant, and inappropriately narrow in scope.     

A SYSTEMS RESOURCES APPROACH TO CITIZEN PARTICIPATION: THE CASE OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS1

ABSTRACT: The thesis of this paper is that the citizen participation process provides necessary, but not sufficient conditions to affect substantive change in federal water resource management agencies' planning and decisionmaking. That is, in its present form, the citizen participation process has been observed to occur outside of the normal decision arenas of federal resource management agencies. The paper reviews concepts of citizen participation and defines some theoretical problems inherent with them. Then, a strategy for the structuring of a citizen participation process is proposed. This strategy is based upon the notion that citizen support for federally sponsored programs are essential if such projects are to be implemented. Therefore, an approach which integrates citizen valves with those held by other institutions and the agency is suggested. In conclusion, the relevancy of actively developing and including citizen input to the water resource planning process is illustrated by a discussion of three cases of the Corps of Engineers and Urban Studies planning process, in different metropolitan regions.     

ECONOMICS OF CONTROLLING NATURAL SALT SOURCES IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The methodology underlying, and the estimates incorporated in the Corps of Engineers' economic evaluation of the Arkansas River Basin Chloride Control Project are evaluated and judged deficient in several ways. An improperly specified alternative cost analysis probably results in overestimates of the total regional demand for water, the demand for Arkansas River Water, and the cost-savings realized with the project in place. The quantitative effect of these errors is not determined. However, other adjustments are identified which are evaluated using the Corps' data. These adjustments reduce B/C from 2.64 to 0.57; principally as a result of corrections for over-estimates of cost-savings in steam-electric generation, and for use of improper discounting procedures and gross output-earnings ratios.     

ENERGY LOSS AND REPLACEMENT COST OF NAVIGATION OF THE SNAKE-COLUMBIA RIVERS1

ABSTRACT: A competitive relationship exists between power production and navigation in the allocation of water resources along the Snake-Columbia River Complex. This report identifies the energy losses within the power system and the replacement costs of water diversion which resulted from commercial and recreational navigation of the Complex over the period 1975–1977.     

SOURCES OF VARIABILITY IN CONDUCTING PEBBLE COUNTS: THEIR POTENTIAL INFLUENCE ON THE RESULTS OF STREAM MONITORING PROGRAMS1

Pebble counts have been used for a variety of monitoring projects and are an important component of stream evaluation efforts throughout the United States. The utility of pebble counts as a monitoring tool is, however, based on the monitoring objectives and the assumption that data are collected with sufficient precision to meet those objectives. Depending upon the objective, sources of variability that can limit the precision of pebble count data include substrate heterogeneity at a site, differences in substrate among sample locations within a stream reach, substrate variability among streams, differences in when the substrate sample is collected, differences in how and where technicians pick up substrate particles, and how consistently technicians measure the intermediate axis of a selected particle. This study found that each of these sources of variability is of sufficient magnitude to affect results of monitoring projects. Therefore, actions such as observer training, increasing the number of pebbles measured, evaluating several riffles within a reach, evaluating permanent sites, and narrowing the time window during which pebble counts are conducted should be considered in order to minimize variability. The failure to account for sources of variability associated with pebble counts within the study design may result in failing to meet monitoring objectives.     

THE LONG-RANGE ENERGY PERSPECTIVE

The author reviews general questions affecting energy projections and goes on to examine reserve forecasts for each type of energy. The last part of the paper considers consumption forecasts and makes an assessment of the likely situation in the year 2000.     

FRONTIER AREAS, RESOURCES, AND DEVELOPING NATIONS: THE CASE OF GUATEMALA

The conscientious and planned integration of frontier areas into the national economy can at least partially alleviate both environmental and economic problems that are common to many developing countries. Full development of the agricultural potential of frontier areas can lessen the environmental deterioration often found in traditionally settled regions. Exploitation of mineral resources, in particular energy resources, can lessen economic burdens associated with increased costs of imported energy. The authors examine how recent international developments have spurred the government of Guatemala to undertake measures designed to develop a previously underutilized region. The short term negative consequences of increased costs for imported grains and petroleum may well have a positive result in the long term insofar as they lead to more balanced and rational use of land and resources.     

NUTRIENT BALANCES FOR THE EVALUATION OF NUTRIENT SOURCES IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT. This paper describes the methodology for a nutrient balance to evaluate the sources and distribution of nutrients in a small river basin. Loadings for total nitrogen and phosphorus are calculated from measured nutrient concentration and river discharge data. Using a special retrieval program and a data storage and processing system, loadings are accumulated over a given time period to allow for time of passage through the basin and seasonal changes in nutrient distribution. Nutrient balances are made with the accumulated loadings to obtain the relative contribution of each nutrient source and the retention of nutrients within the basin through sedimentation and aquatic growth. The methodology has been used to study nutrients in the Qu'Appelle River Basin, Saskatchewan, Canada.     

THE COSTS OF CONFLICTING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: A CASE STUDY IN MILWAUKEE1

ABSTRACT: The history of the Milwaukee water pollution abatement program is examined as a case study to investigate the costs of conflicting environmental policy. The recent U.S. Supreme Court decision concerning the Milwaukee case is described as a milestone in U.S. water pollution abatement policy which will help preclude the type of environmental policy conflict which has been found to be so costly to Milwaukee. The implications to U.S. water pollution abatement policy of the 13-year history of conflict in Milwaukee are presented.     

IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON QUALITY OF POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY SOURCES IN THE SANGAMON RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The analysis of stream flow and several water quality parameters in six Illinois rivers showed both deterioration and improvement in quality indicators during 1976–1977 drought. The adverse impacts were an increase of ammonia and manganese concentrations and, to a lesser degree, increased concentrations of phenol and specific conductance. At the worst point during the drought, the 12-month moving average of monthly ammonia concentration in the Sangamon River was about 620 percent higher than the antecedent value. On the other hand, average concentrations of nitrites and nitrates, total iron, and the number of coliform bacteria significantly decreased. This positive response suggests that streams which are considered unsuitable for municipal supply due to high levels of these quality indicators may be used as emergency sources during droughts.