水质对紫外消毒在两种典型再生水中应用的影响

以大肠杆菌为对象，研究了再生水水质变化对紫外消毒效果和光复活的影响。结果表明，紫外对大肠杆菌有很强的灭活作用，在紫外剂量为4mJ／cm^2时，大肠杆菌的灭活率达到了4．41个对数级。腐殖酸、铁和2种再生水水体中其他溶解性物质会影响光吸收和紫外透射率，但对紫外消毒动力学无影响。在颗粒物浓度为0～200mg／L的范围内，外源高岭土和活性污泥等颗粒物的投加对紫外消毒效果影响较小，而再生水水样W1中原有的2．61／1：g／L的颗粒物则会极大地影响消毒效果，使UV对细菌的灭活出现明显的拖尾现象。腐殖酸会增强紫外损伤大肠杆菌的光复活能力，但2种再生水中细菌的光复活能力相对磷酸盐缓冲溶液（PBS）中减弱，减弱程度在不同水样中有所不同。     

紫外与次氯酸钠消毒效果及影响因素研究

选取大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli)为示踪菌种,研究了紫外消毒和次氯酸钠消毒的灭活效果(用对数灭活率来衡量),进行了实时荧光定量聚合酶链式反应(PCR)检测,同时考察了浊度、Fe3+浓度、有机物对紫外消毒的灭活效果影响,以及pH、氨氮浓度对次氯酸钠消毒的灭活效果影响。结果表明:(1)紫外消毒和次氯酸钠消毒对大肠埃希氏菌均有较好的灭活效果。紫外辐射剂量为15mJ/cm2时即可达到4.55的对数灭活率;次氯酸钠投加量为2.5mg/L,消毒时间30min即可100%灭活。(2)当紫外辐射剂量为15mJ/cm2时,浊度、Fe3+浓度增加或投加腐殖酸均可使紫外消毒的灭活效果变差。(3)pH升高或者氨氮浓度增大均会导致次氯酸钠消毒的灭活效果变差。     

MBR出水氯、紫外、臭氧单独与组合消毒

采用氯、紫外和臭氧单独与2种组合工艺对MBR工艺中试出水进行了消毒实验,研究了不同消毒方式对指示性微生物的去除效果以及消毒副产物三卤甲烷(THMs)生成量随有效氯投加量的变化。结果表明,组合工艺消毒效果明显优于单独消毒效果,紫外剂量为25 mJ/cm2与有效氯投加量为3 mg/L的紫外与氯组合、臭氧投加量为6 mg/L与有效氯投加量为4 mg/L的臭氧与氯组合2种工艺消毒后出水中的总大肠菌群指标均满足《污水再生利用城市杂用水水质》(GB/T 18920-2002)的要求。THMs生成量随着有效氯投加量的增加而增加。相对紫外与氯组合消毒,臭氧与氯组合消毒可以大幅度降低THMs生成量,有效氯投加量为4 mg/L时,THMs生成浓度为14.11μg/L,比氯单独消毒过程降低了37.19%。     

紫外-氯顺序灭活地下水源水中真菌的效能

以地下水源水中真菌为研究对象,研究了单独紫外线灭活、单独氯灭活以及紫外线-氯顺序灭活的灭菌效果,同时对单独消毒剂灭活进行了动力学研究,确定了其动力学参数。结果表明:单独紫外线灭活时,在相同紫外剂量(I·t)下,高紫外强度(I)下真菌的灭活效果优于低紫外强度的灭活效果;紫外线灭活符合一级光化学反应,其速率常数k为0.044~0.077 cm2·(m W·s)~(-1)。单独氯灭活时,氯浓度2.0 mg·L~(-1),作用30 min,真菌灭活率达到95%;氯衰减符合一级衰减模型,即氯灭活真菌符合一级动力学反应,其速率常数k为0.056~0.081 L·(mg·s)~(-1)。紫外线-氯顺序灭活时,高紫外剂量-低加氯量可以达到低紫外剂量-高加氯量的灭活效果;真菌完全灭活时,紫外剂量从5 m J·cm~(-2)增加到30 m J·cm~(-2),加氯量可降低1~2 mg·L~(-1),减少了消毒副产物的生成量,降低了生态环境风险;紫外线与氯顺序灭活具有协同效应。     

废水紫外线消毒的动力学研究

利用水面照射式紫外线消毒装置对废水消毒的动力学进行了研究,确定了其动力学参数.试验结果表明,当废水的温度为18.5～23℃,浊度为11.7°～20.1°,水层厚度为8 cm,照射2 min时,废水中细菌杀灭率均在99%以上;并且当废水的浊度＜20°,进水菌体浓度＜1.0×105 CFU/mL时,废水紫外线消毒过程可以近似地看成为一级光生化反应,其速率常数κ为0.034～0.058 s-1.该结果可以作为废水紫外线消毒反应器设计和运行管理的参考依据.     

炼化企业中水紫外线消毒及其影响因素

研究水质对254 nm紫外线透射率的影响,通过动态实验考察了照射时间、254 nm紫外线透射率以及紫外线剂量对炼化企业中水消毒效果的影响并同时考察异养菌、硫酸盐还原菌和铁细菌的光复活及暗修复现象。结果表明,有机物是影响炼化企业中水紫外线消毒的重要因素;紫外线对炼化企业中水中的异养菌具有良好的灭活作用;增加照射时间对消毒效果的提升作用受254 nm紫外线透射率的影响;紫外线透射率在较低的范围内时对消毒效果的影响相对较大,在较高的范围内时影响较小;紫外线剂量-响应曲线受254 nm紫外线透射率的影响;剂量的"成分",即照射时间和透射率的不同组合,也会对消毒效果产生影响;在80 mJ/cm2的剂量下,20 h内异养菌出现了较强烈的光复活和暗修复现象,铁细菌仅出现了明显的光复活现象,硫酸盐还原菌没有表现出明显的复活。     

炼化企业中水紫外线消毒及其影响因素简

研究水质对254 nm紫外线透射率的影响，通过动态实验考察了照射时间、254 nm紫外线透射率以及紫外线剂量对炼化企业中水消毒效果的影响并同时考察异养菌、硫酸盐还原菌和铁细菌的光复活及暗修复现象。结果表明，有机物是影响炼化企业中水紫外线消毒的重要因素；紫外线对炼化企业中水中的异养菌具有良好的灭活作用；增加照射时间对消毒效果的提升作用受254 nm紫外线透射率的影响；紫外线透射率在较低的范围内时对消毒效果的影响相对较大，在较高的范围内时影响较小；紫外线剂量-响应曲线受254 nm紫外线透射率的影响；剂量的“成分”，即照射时间和透射率的不同组合，也会对消毒效果产生影响；在80 mJ/cm²的剂量下，20 h内异养菌出现了较强烈的光复活和暗修复现象，铁细菌仅出现了明显的光复活现象，硫酸盐还原菌没有表现出明显的复活。     

模拟再生水配水管网生物稳定性的研究

以T市J再生水厂出厂水为研究对象,利用生物膜反应器模拟再生水配水管网系统.通过微生物的培养和加氯消毒发现,培养40 d后出水和生物膜异养菌达到平衡,出水达5.63 log(CFU/mL),膜片达5.13 log(CFU/cm2).加氯消毒后出水和膜片上异养菌随着出水自由氯和总氯的增加而降低,通过比较可知控制出水自由氯0...     

聚丙烯酰胺对活性污泥特性的影响研究

高分子混凝剂PAM投加是强化污泥造粒的有效方法,但PAM的投加对活性污泥中微生物群落以及对其生化降解性能的影响尚缺乏系统性研究。为此,通过实验室小型实验,在SBR中连续投加PAM,运用FISH等微生物检测技术,研究了PAM对活性污泥的影响。在PAM投量为3 mg/L的条件下,反应器中活性污泥的生长过程与对照反应器没有根本性差别,且PAM投加后MLSS浓度和单位重量污泥的生物量均有一定增大,污泥的沉降性能也得到改善。FISH检测的结果表明,与对照反应器相比,总细菌、亚硝化菌、硝化菌的个数分别由9.1×105、1.8×105和1.1×105CFU/mL增长到1.0×106、2.0×105和1.2×105CFU/mL,说明PAM没有对各种菌落的生长产生不利影响。连续运行80 d的结果也表明,投加PAM的反应器中COD和氨氮的去除均有所改善。     

三氯异氰尿酸在窖水中的余氯衰减规律及消毒效果

为保持集雨窖水水质,提高饮用水安全性,采用向窖水中投加三氯异氰尿酸(trichloroisocyanuric acid,TCCA)的消毒方法,检测主体水的余氯衰减规律和微生物的变化情况,重点研究了消毒剂投加量、温度及pH等因素的影响。实验结果表明:余氯衰减过程符合一级动力学模型;随初始氯投加量的增大,水中余氯衰减量增大,余氯衰减系数减小且与初始投加量的倒数成线性正相关;随水中有机物等反应物浓度的降低,余氯衰减量减少,余氯衰减系数减小;随温度的升高,余氯衰减量增大,衰减系数增大;随pH的增大,余氯衰减量减少,衰减系数减小;水中菌落总数的灭活率随消毒剂投加量的增加而增大。当消毒剂浓度为1.5～2.5 mg·L~(-1)时,在60 min内可完成对菌落总数99.0%的灭活;当消毒剂浓度大于2.5 mg·L~(-1)时,在30 min内可完成对菌落总数99.9%的灭活。在pH为6～9时,pH越小,消毒效果越好;在10～30℃时,温度越高,消毒效果越好;水中氨氮存在时,氯胺的生成会减弱短期消毒效果。与传统氯制消毒剂相比,TCCA在窖水消毒方面有较好的应用前景。     

Reduction of photoreactivation with the combined UV/peracetic acid process or by delayed exposure to visible light.

Photoreactivation of microorganisms following UV inactivation is a well-known, but complex, phenomenon. It is affected by several factors, including UV fluence, wavelength, light intensity, and exposure time to photoreactivating light. The effect on photoreactivation of a combined peracetic acid (PAA)/UV process has not been investigated. Accordingly, this study compared the degree of photoreactivation, under both sunlight and artificial lights, following UV and combined PAA/UV inactivation of fecal coliforms. Effluent samples from the Montreal Wastewater Treatment Plant (MWTP) (Quebec, Canada) were exposed, for 3 hours, to both low- and high-intensity artificial lights and sunlight. All resulted in similar photoreactivation levels. However, average photoreactivation for UV-treated wastewater samples was 1.2 logs, compared with 0.1 log for the combined PAA/UV treatment. Hence, the use of PAA in combination with UV can significantly reduce the potential for photoreactivation. To simulate the photoreactivation conditions of the MWTP effluent (which passes through a 4-km outfall tunnel with approximately 3 hours detention time), UV-treated samples were kept in the dark for 3 hours before photoreactivating light exposure. After this period, photoreactivation levels were close to zero. Hence, the effects of photoreactivation may be diminished by use of a combined disinfection scheme and/or by delaying exposure of the disinfected wastewater to light.     

Ultraviolet and chlorine disinfection of mycobacterium in wastewater: effect of aggregation.

Mycobacteria naturally aggregate in water, a characteristic that may serve to protect them against disinfection in wastewater. Secondary effluent was spiked with Mycobacterium terrae (M. terrae), sequentially filtered through 100-, 41-, and 20-microm nylon filters to partition aggregate sizes, confirmed using particle-size analysis and microscopy. Each sample was exposed to doses of UV light (10 to 60 mJ/cm2 at 254 nm) and free chlorine (27 to 150 mg-min/L at 4 degrees C). Inactivation of M. terrae in wastewater was initially rapid, with 2.5 log reduction at 14 mJ/cm2 and 56 mg-min/L for UV and free chlorine, respectively. However, in effluent and 100-microm filtered wastewater, spiked M. terrae was present to the highest doses evaluated. Interestingly, M. terrae passed through 41- and 20-microm filters were inactivated rapidly, with no survivors after moderate disinfection doses. Inactivation of Mycobacteria in wastewater may be compromised by aggregates larger than 41 microns.     

Wastewater disinfection alternatives: chlorine, ozone, peracetic acid, and UV light.

Disinfection tests were carried out at pilot scale to compare the disinfection efficiency of ozone, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), peracetic acid (PAA), and UV irradiation. Total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli were monitored as reference microorganisms. Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) were also enumerated by cytometry. At similar doses, NaOCl was more effective than PAA, and its action was less affected by contact time. The results obtained by ozonation were comparable for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli. On the contrary, some differences among the three indicators were observed for NaOCl, PAA, and UV. Differences increased with increasing values of the disinfectant concentration times contact time (C x t) and were probably the result of different initial counts, as total coliforms include fecal coliforms, which include E. coli. The UV irradiation lead to complete E. coli removals, even at low doses (10 to 20 mJ/cm2). Total heterotrophic bacteria appeared to be too wide a group to be a good disinfection indicator; no correlation was found among THB inactivation, dose, and contact time.     

Disinfection of an advanced primary effluent with peracetic acid and ultraviolet combined treatment: a continuous-flow pilot plant study

Disinfection of an advanced primary effluent using a continuous-flow combined peracetic acid/ultraviolet (PAA/UV) radiation system was evaluated. The purpose was to determine whether the maximum microbial content, established under Mexican standards for treated wastewaters meant for reuse--less than 240 most probable number fecal coliforms (FC)/100 mL--could be feasibly accomplished using either disinfectant individually, or the combined PAA/UV system. This meant achieving reduction of up to 5 logs, considering initial concentrations of 6.4 x 10(+6) to 5.8 x 10(+7) colony forming units/100 mL. During the tests performed under these experiments, total coliforms (TC) were counted because FC, at the most, will be equal to TC. Peracetic acid disinfection achieved less than 1.5 logs TC reduction when the C(t) x t product was less than 2.26 mg x minimum (min)/L; 3.8 logs for C(t) x t 4.40 mg x min/L; and 5.9 logs for C(t) x t 24.2 mg x min/L. In continuous-flow UV irradiation tests, at a low-operating flow (21 L/min; conditions which produced an average UV fluence of 13.0 mJ/cm2), the highest TC reduction was close to 2.5 logs. The only condition that produced a disinfection efficiency of approximately 5 logs, when both disinfection agents were used together, was the combined process dosing 30 mg PAA/L at a pilot plant flow of 21 L/min and contact time of 10 minutes to attain an average C(t) x t product of 24.2 mg x min/L and an average UV fluence of 13 mJ/cm2. There was no conclusive evidence of a synergistic effect when both disinfectants were employed in combination as compared to the individual effects achieved when used separately, but this does not take into account the nonlinearity (tailing-off) of the dose-response curve.     

Evaluation of disinfection techniques in the treatment of advanced primary treated wastewater for Ciudad Juárez, México.

The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative disinfection techniques at the bench-scale level using wastewater from Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, as model feed. This paper presents findings on the effectiveness of UV radiation, peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as disinfectants for advanced primary treatment (APT) plant effluent. Wastewater samples for bench-scale testing were collected from an agua negra ("black water") ditch that is part of the combined sewer system in Ciudad Juarez. Bench-scale simulations of the APT process used in Ciudad Juarez were run using a jar test apparatus and aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3] as the coagulant. Jar test effluent from the bench system was used for disinfection testing. The Mexican discharge quality standard for total coliforms is 10 000/100 mL. Ultraviolet radiation met this standard at a dose of 47.5 mW-s/cm2. Ultraviolet disinfection proved reliable and effective despite the presence of suspended solids, and UV dose effectiveness expressed as a total coliforms survival ratio was best explained by a linear regression model. The ClO2 dose ranged from 10 to 20 mg/L and was only effective under ambient temperature conditions found during the winter months; PAA disinfection never met Mexican standards. Chlorine disinfection was effective at a dose range of 8 to 10 mg/L on samples collected at low temperature conditions. Since the completion of this research, Ciudad Juarez has discontinued the use of chlorine disinfection because of its high cost and ineffectiveness.     

Effects of wastewater disinfection on waterborne bacteria and viruses.

Wastewater disinfection is practiced with the goal of reducing risks of human exposure to pathogenic microorganisms. In most circumstances, the efficacy of a wastewater disinfection process is regulated and monitored based on measurements of the responses of indicator bacteria. However, inactivation of indicator bacteria does not guarantee an acceptable degree of inactivation among other waterborne microorganisms (e.g., microbial pathogens). Undisinfected effluent samples from several municipal wastewater treatment facilities were collected for analysis. Facilities were selected to provide a broad spectrum of effluent quality, particularly as related to nitrogenous compounds. Samples were subjected to bench-scale chlorination and dechlorination and UV irradiation under conditions that allowed compliance with relevant discharge regulations and such that disinfectant exposures could be accurately quantified. Disinfected samples were subjected to a battery of assays to assess the immediate and long-term effects of wastewater disinfection on waterborne bacteria and viruses. In general, (viable) bacterial populations showed an immediate decline as a result of disinfectant exposure; however, incubation of disinfected samples under conditions that were designed to mimic the conditions in a receiving stream resulted in substantial recovery of the total bacterial community. The bacterial groups that are commonly used as indicators do not provide an accurate representation of the response of the bacterial community to disinfectant exposure and subsequent recovery in the environment. UV irradiation and chlorination/dechlorination both accomplished measurable inactivation of indigenous phage; however, the extent of inactivation was fairly modest under the conditions of disinfection used in this study. UV irradiation was consistently more effective as a virucide than chlorination/dechlorination under the conditions of application, based on measurements of virus (phage) diversity and concentration. Taken together, and when considered in conjunction with previously published research, the results of these experiments illustrate several important limitations of common disinfection processes as applied in the treatment of municipal wastewaters. In general, it is not clear that conventional disinfection processes, as commonly implemented, are effective for control of the risks of disease transmission, particularly those associated with viral pathogens. Microbial quality in receiving streams may not be substantially improved by the application of these disinfection processes; under some circumstances, an argument can be made that disinfection may actually yield a decrease in effluent and receiving water quality. Decisions regarding the need for effluent disinfection must account for site-specific characteristics, but it is not clear that disinfection of municipal wastewater effluents is necessary or beneficial for all facilities. When direct human contact or ingestion of municipal wastewater effluents is likely, disinfection may be necessary. Under these circumstances, UV irradiation appears to be superior to chlorination in terms of microbial quality and chemistry and toxicology. This advantage is particularly evident in effluents that contain appreciable quantities of ammonia-nitrogen or organic nitrogen.     

The photocatalytic disinfection of urban waste waters

In this paper we present the results of the photocatalytic disinfection of urban waste water. Two microbial groups, total coliforms and Streptococcus faecalis, have been used as indexes to test disinfection efficiencies. Different experimental parameters have been checked, such as the effect of TiO2, solar or UV-lamp light and pH. Disinfection of water samples has been achieved employing both UV-lamp and solar light in agreement with data shown by other authors. The higher disinfection rates obtained employing an UV-lamp may be explained by the stronger incident light intensity. Nevertheless no consistent differences have been found between TiO2-photocatalysis and direct solar or UV-lamp light irradiation at natural sample pH (7.8). At pH 5 the presence of TiO2 increases the relative inactivation rate compared with the absence of the catalyst. After the photocatalytic bacterial inactivation, the later bacterial reappearance was checked for total coliforms at natural pH and pH 5, with and without TiO2. Two h after the photocatalytic treatment, CFU increment was almost nill. But 24 and 48 h later an important bacterial CFU increment was observed. This CFU increment is slower after irradiation with TiO2 at pH 5 in non-air-purged samples.     

Effect of freezing on photoreactivation of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis

The effect of freezing on photoreactivation of two strains of Escherichia coli (ATCC strain 25922 and O157:H7 strain 961019) and two strains of Enterococcus faecalis (strain ATCC 51299, vancomycin-resistant and strain ATCC 29212, vancomycin-sensitive) following ultraviolet irradiation were examined. The level of log photoreactivation of the freezing treated test organisms (frozen at -7, -15, or -30 degrees C then thawed at room temperature prior to ultraviolet irradiation) was compared with that of the samples that had not been frozen. Freezing had obvious impact on the response of the test organisms to visible light following ultraviolet irradiation. Significantly lower levels of photoreactivation were observed in the freezing treated cells. The effect of freezing on the ability of the test microbes to photoreactivate seems to be strain and species dependent. Overall, the experimental results suggest that less photoreactivation could be expected if freezing is used as a treatment method prior to ultraviolet disinfection.