Adaptation Options Strategies for Hazards and Vulnerability Mitigation: An International Perspective

The broad objective of this special issue of Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change is to address some of the gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the policies, programs, and measures that might be applied to natural hazards and their impacts in an era of climate change. Given the global impacts of climate change and world-wide pattern of increasing losses from natural hazards we necessarily adopt an international perspective. The specific goals of the special issue are to: (a) encompass experiential aspects, emphasizing current practice of mitigation and its associated measures, and their results; and (b) explore primary or root causes of alarming shifts in human and economic costs of environmental extremes. Special emphasis is placed on how human activities are playing a key role in enhancing vulnerability to NTEE (nature-triggered environmental extremes), quite independently from the anthropogenic causes of climate change. The goals are also (c) to examine costs, risks, and benefits (of all kinds including social, political, ecological) of mitigation, and adjustment and adaptation measures; and (d) analyze policy implications of alternative measures. These components are expected to make significant contributions to policy considerations – formulation, implementation and evaluation. There is much uncertainty about the rate of climate change; however, the fact of increase of the atmospheric temperature in the last century is no longer a subject of scientific or policy debate. Due to such changes in the geophysical parameters, certain types of nature-triggered environmental extreme events are likely to continue to increase. How global warming will affect regional climates and pertinent variables is not well known, limiting our ability to predict consequential effects. This factor poses serious constraints against any straightforward policy decisions. Research findings of the work of this volume reaffirm that human dimensions, specifically our awareness and decision-making behavior, are powerful explanatory factors of increasing disaster losses. Disaster mitigation through addressing human, social, and physical vulnerability is one of the best means for contributing to ‘climate change adaptation plans’, and sustainable development goals. Recent lessons from various countries have depicted that the formulation of mitigation strategies cannot be exclusively top-down as it requires social, political, and cultural acceptance and sense of ownership. An interactive, participatory process, involving local communities, produces best expected outcomes concerning mitigation, preparedness, and recovery. An emerging consensus is that there is a need to move towards the ‘mission’ of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction which aims at building disaster resilient communities by promoting increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development, with the goal of reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters. Sharing of best practices and lessons globally is certain to produce more efficiency and understanding in policy and decision making.     

Reducing the risks posed by natural hazards and climate change: the need for a participatory dialogue between the scientific community and policy makers

In the last two decades we witnessed a progressive shift in the approach towards the reduction of the impact of natural hazards. From a general reactive approach, focusing on strengthening disaster response mechanisms, we have moved to proactive approaches. There has been recognition that each element of society, from public institutions to private sector, from community-based organizations to every single individual, can make a difference by acting before disasters strike to reduce the associated risks of human and economic losses. This proactive approach can be summarized in three words: Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).Today, DRR is an approach used in several sectors and research areas. In the Development sphere, DRR is considered a key feature for sustainability of economic and development gains – especially for developing countries. Significantly, the United Nations Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction (2009) is titled “Risk and poverty in a changing climate” highlighting the importance of DRR in reducing poverty while being a means to address the challenges posed by adaptation to climate change.This paper, which serves as an introduction to the special issue of Environment Science & Policy on climate change impact on water-related disasters, intends to provide readers with an overview of the main policy frameworks addressing DRR internationally and in Europe. Further, it aims to offer some “food for thought” on the underlying opportunities we have to enhance the resilience of our communities towards the risks posed by weather-related hazards. It stresses the importance of governance of risks, which starts from an effective dialogue between the scientific community and the policy makers: those who have the responsibility to decide on the most cost-effective interventions to address climate change adaptation and risk reduction.     

中国自然灾害、减灾建设与可持续发展

本文依据国家减灾委减灾办所收集到的有关我国自然灾害的资料,以及国家基金委＂中国自然灾害区域规律＂研究所收集到的资料,分析了中国自然灾害的基本状况、危险性程度以及中国可持续发展与减灾建设。结论是中国可持续发展必须对减轻自然灾害给予高度重视,把减灾作为国家的基本国策。     

灾害损失基本内涵探讨

各种灾害对我国的经济社会和环境带来巨大的损失.本文主要从市场影响和非市场影响及存量损失和流量损失两个方面,从经济学角度对灾害损失的内涵进行深入探讨.在论述灾害损失原则的基础上,论述在灾害损失评估中应该注意市场价格和影子价格选取以及重复计算的问题.     

Catastrophes and Climate Change: Concerns and Possible Countermeasures of the Insurance Industry

In the last few decades, the international insurance industry has been confronted with a drastic increase in the scope and frequency of great natural disasters. The trend is primarily attributable to the continuing steady growth of the world population and the increasing concentration of people and economic values in urban areas. An additional factor is the global migration of populations and industries into areas such as coastal regions, which are particularly exposed to natural hazards. The natural hazards themselves, on the other hand, are showing a change for the worse as many atmospheric extremes are strongly influenced by global warming. In addition to the problems the insurance industry has with regard to pricing, capacity and loss reserves, the assessment of insured liabilities, preventive planning and the proper adjustment of catastrophe losses are gaining importance. The present problems will be dramatically aggravated if the greenhouse predictions come true. The changing probability distributions of many processes in the atmosphere will force up the frequency and severity of heat waves, droughts, bush fires, tropical and extratropical cyclones, tornados, hailstorms, floods and storm surges in many parts of the world with serious consequences for all types of property insurance, apart from the consequences of the stratospheric ozone destruction for health and life insurance. Rates will have to be raised and in certain areas insurance cover will only be available after considerable restrictions have been imposed, as for example significant deductibles and low liability or loss limits. In areas of high insurance density the loss potential of individual catastrophes can reach a level at which the national and international insurance industries will run into serious capacity problems. Recent disasters showed the disproportionately high participation of reinsurers in extreme disaster losses and the need for more risk transparency if the insurance industry is to fulfil its obligations in an increasingly hostile environment.     

Disseminating near-real-time hazards information and flood maps in the Philippines through Web-GIS

The Philippines being a locus of tropical cyclones, tsunamis, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, is a hotbed of disasters. These natural hazards inflict loss of lives and costly damage to property. Situated in a region where climate and geophysical tempest is common, the Philippines will inevitably suffer from calamities similar to those experienced recently. With continued development and population growth in hazard prone areas, it is expected that damage to infrastructure and human losses would persist and even rise unless appropriate measures are immediately implemented by government. In 2012, the Philippines launched a responsive program for disaster prevention and mitigation called the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (Project NOAH), specifically for government warning agencies to be able to provide a 6 hr lead-time warning to vulnerable communities against impending floods and to use advanced technology to enhance current geo-hazard vulnerability maps. To disseminate such critical information to as wide an audience as possible, a Web-GIS using mashups of freely available source codes and application program interface (APIs) was developed and can be found in the URLs http:// noah.dost.gov.ph and http://noah.up.edu.ph/. This Web-GIS tool is now heavily used by local government units in the Philippines in their disaster prevention and mitigation efforts and can be replicated in countries that have a proactive approach to address the impacts of natural hazards but lack sufficient funds.     

中国小流域山洪灾害防御研究

文章主要研究中国小流域山洪灾害防御研究,利用文献调查法和综合分析法,分别从中国山洪灾害造成概况、特点与危害、诱因与影响因素、主要表现形式以及防御措施几个方面进行研究.结果表明:首先研究小流域山洪灾害的特点、影响因素及其诱因对于制定具有针对性的防御措施至关重要;其次科学合理的山洪灾害应对措施能够极大的降低山洪灾害造成的损失;最后制定科学合理的山洪灾害预案、恢复生态平衡、加强小流域综合治理是防御山洪灾害的有效途径.     

飓风“桑迪＂的影响及启示研究

城市地区突发自然灾害常常会对给水排水设施造成不利影响。飓风“桑迪”于2012年10月29日登陆美国,多个东部城市出现大面积停电,缺水,交通中断以及罕见的城市内涝,造成重大人员伤亡和巨额财产损失,严重地影响了当地人们正常的生产和生活。从飓风“桑迪”对美国城市给水和排水系统造成的巨大破坏出发,并结合当地政府采取的紧急应对措施展开讨论,总结其中的经验教训及启示。     

Waste site hazard assessment: a taxonomy of current methods and criteria

Dozens of schemes have been developed for assessing the hazards and implicit risks posed by waste disposal sites in the United States. Effective hazard-assessment processes guide decision makers, policy makers, and the public toward more appropriate risk management solutions. Just as in quantitative risk assessment, however, the utility of a hazard assessment scheme depends upon the applicability and totality of the parameters, as well as upon the validity of the assumptions and logic underlying that process. Examination of the range of hazard assessment methods that have been employed reveals some common limitations and a universe of applicable parameters. Understanding the scope of United States efforts is vital to the effective transfer of hazard assessment technology to waste site stakeholders in other industrialized countries. A useful set of modeling criteria is provided as a foundation for future application of the hazard assessment concept at the thousands of waste sites worldwide where hazards are yet to be investigated.     

南京北郊冬季挥发性有机物来源解析及苯系物健康评估

采用2015年12月GC5000在线气相色谱仪对南京北郊大气中的挥发性有机物(VOCs)进行观测,结合PMF受体模型对VOCs进行来源解析分析其主要组成与变化特征.并利用美国环保署(EPA)人体暴露分析评价方法对VOCs中的苯系物进行健康风险评估.结果表明,南京冬季大气VOCs存在6种来源,天然气泄漏为32.05%,汽车尾气为18.99%,溶剂使用为13.67%,工厂排放2为13.20%,汽油挥发11.72%,工厂排放1(化工型)为10.36%.通过风向概率分析,发现排放源贡献高值区与观测点周边污染源分布较为一致.南京北郊B/T为0.74处于较高水平.非致癌风险危害商值(HQ)在06:00达到最高值.HQ风险值均在EPA认定的安全范围内.各来源HQ最高是汽车尾气排放为20.67×10-2,其次是溶剂使用为6.97×10-2和天然气泄漏为6.34×10-2.在6种来源中对于苯的致癌风险(R)中汽车尾气排放为4.11×10-6,天然气泄漏为1.09×10-6,均高于EPA规定的安全阈值.     

多灾害损失评估模型与应用述评

评述美国的损失评估模型软件HAZUS-MH的功能架构、模型分析等特色,从其对软硬件要求、数据库组成等方面凸现其功能的完整性,重点分析软件在灾害研究和风险管理中的应用,并结合台湾地震损失评估系统(TELES)的成功经验,提出自主开发损失评估系统的构想.     

Assessment of risks for adaptation to climate change: the case of land-slides

This paper describes how relatively detailed knowledge about probabilities of natural hazards can be used to make decisions to develop areas and control the risk within hazard zones. The assessment serves two purposes. First, it shows how information can support decisions. Second, decision criteria put leads on what information is required. This is helpful to identify unavailable information. We show by an example from a land-slide prone area in Norway how a relatively reliable estimate of the probability of slides ends up in a rather uncertain estimate of the risk. Uncertainty about the risk represented by natural hazards imply great challenges to the development of adaptation policies to meet climate change, but they are required. We develop a simplified criterion for optimal adaptation, and estimate the added social value required to defend development in hazard prone areas instead of developing a risk-free alternative. The value is estimated between 0 and 0.40 Euros per Euro invested in the case area, depending on type of slide, category of asset and other costs that occur in the wake of slides.     

Slum dwellers response to flooding events in the megacities of India

Megacities in developing countries are rapidly transforming places. Under the impetus of global change processes and consequent transformations at the environmental, social, cultural, political and economical scales; factors causing disasters and losses are changing every day. These changes are also altering society’s ability to respond to hazard events. This paper examines the response of slum dwellers who are the most vulnerable and marginal section of urban population and often located in places with high hazard risk with less or no means to reduce the impact of flood events. Marginal population groups in megacities suffer the negative consequences of large scale global change processes and do not benefit from the risk mitigation strategies adopted by city authorities. The paper therefore argues that people living in informal settlements instead have to employ a combination of structural means and complex networks of assistance to recover from floods. Based on the results deduced from data collected with the help of household surveys in the slums of Mumbai, the study demonstrates the types of coping strategies used by slum dwellers and the changing characteristics of these mechanisms under the influence of global change processes in megacities. Furthermore, results show that capacity to respond is not equally distributed among slum dwellers due to underlying socio cultural divisions and emerging economic and political constraints. The paper concludes that to address existing discrepancies in urban societies and within slum settlements, flood mitigation strategies will have to be (1) more inclusive of marginal population (2) sensitive to the limitations and scope of old and new social structures and (3) incorporate innovative networks of support to deal with the consequences of global change.     

贵州省安龙县地质灾害发育特征及成因分析

安龙县位于贵州省西南部,地处扬子陆块与右江造山带的过渡地带。该县境内山地、丘陵地貌发育,地形切割较强烈,地质构造、地层岩性复杂。在自然因素、人为因素的作用下,引发了多种地质灾害,使区内生态地质环境遭受严重破坏,给工农业生产和人民生命财产带来较大的损失和严重危害。本文分析研究了因降雨为主引发的滑坡、崩塌,因岩溶充水矿床疏排地下水所引起的岩溶塌陷,因矿山企业采矿形成的采空区为主引发的采空塌陷等地质灾害发育特征及成因分析。地质环境是一个复杂多变的、不稳定的开放系统,其变化就构成了地质灾害形成与发展的基础与条件。地质灾害的发育、分布、致灾程度与地质环境中的地形地貌、地质构造、岩土体地质类型、水文地质条件等因素及人类工程活动强度有着密切的关系。并针对存在的地质灾害隐患提出防治措施及建议。     

Mapping social vulnerability to natural hazards in Italy: A suitable tool for risk mitigation strategies

Italy is one of the European countries that are most heavily exposed to a wide range of natural hazards, which might cause large economic losses. In this context, the assessment of social vulnerability has an important role for evaluating the capacity of a community to prepare for, respond to and recover from disasters. However there are currently no published studies analysing social vulnerability and its spatial distribution in Italy. Within this framework, this paper aims to apply a proven method for assessing social vulnerability at the national scale, while considering the contribution of the socioeconomic and demographic factors that affect the Italian population. The proposed methodology is based on the Hazard-of-Place Model approach, and uses free and open source software applications (FOSS). Specifically, we selected significant components through Principal Component Analysis and derived their spatial distribution. Using component scores, we derived a social vulnerability index, evaluated its geographic distribution, and performed a cluster analysis on its spatial variation. The analysis identified different spatial patterns across Italy, providing useful information for identifying the communities most likely to experience negative natural disaster impacts due to their socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. This research represents an important contribution to improve the potentiality of risk mitigation strategies and in designing risk custom-made policies.     

地质灾害风险区划与综合防治对策

地质灾害不仅给人类生命带来威胁，而且对环境、资源、财产等均具有破坏性。由于地质灾害的发生具有区域性、突发性、分布广、频率高等主要特点，地质灾害所造成的损失十分严重。我国是世界上地质灾害损失最严重的国家之一，现有400多个县级城镇、1万多个村庄受到滑坡、崩塌、泥石流等灾害的威胁。虽然，我国在地质灾害领域的理论研究和防治水平有了很大提高，但灾害威胁依然存在，而且越来越严重，归纳起来可以概括为三个主要原因：（1）预防性、区域性研究远远跟不上治理工程需要；（2）治理工程偏重工程技术忽略地质灾害发生的地质机理研究；（3）人类因素的参与，造成自然地质体平衡状态的恶化、自然生态环境的破坏等加速了大区域范围内地质灾害的发生频率和规模。因此，作为我国地质灾害综合防治一条有效道路，就是要加强开展地质灾害危险性和风险区划，开展预防性研究，圈定地质灾害危险性区域和灾害高风险区域，为国土规划、减灾防灾、灾害管理与决策提供可靠依据，从而达到综合防灾与减灾的目的。     

秦皇岛海域赤潮灾害损失评估系统设计与实现

本文根据已存在的赤潮灾害损失评估技术方法,并针对秦皇岛海域海水养殖业与滨海旅游业等的实际情况,依据业务工作的具体需求以及能够得到的评价数据,并结合地理信息系统技术建立了基于Visual C#和ArcGIS Engine组件的秦皇岛海域赤潮灾害损失评估系统。系统实现了数据输入与管理、GIS数据检测查询、损失评估模型计算、结果制作与输出的功能,并将赤潮灾害损失评估结果以直观、可视化的形式进行表达。评估结果包括海水养殖业损失评估、滨海旅游业损失评估、赤潮灾害应急监测费用损失评估以及处置费用损失评估,并对当地的灾后救援以及经济损失评估起到重要作用,同时也为管理者的相关决策提供科学依据。     

环境灾害的基本特征与原理初探

由自然条件和人为因素共同导致的环境灾害正日益引起人们的关注,环境灾害的发生与发展机制,环境灾害宾一般原理和特征,以及控制和防止环境灾害的原理和方法,都是重要的研究内容,特别是经济高速发展的条件下,如何处理好经济与环境之间的关系,消除发生环境灾害的潜在原因,以及在环境灾害发生以扣如何减轻环境灾害的影响等都是环境灾害学的研究对象。     

单体滑坡灾害危险性评价方法研究

滑坡是我国山区城镇建设中危害较大的一种地质灾害,本文在综合分析国内外危险性评价方法的基础上,结合实例分析,提出了适用于单体滑坡的危险性评价。即根据蒙特卡洛法的基本原理及方法编制了滑坡的稳定性可靠度分析程序,计算不同工况下滑坡失稳的概率。同时,利用离散元软件模拟滑坡运动过程,进一步确定滑坡影响范围。危险性评价的结果可为滑...     

Scientist and stakeholder perspectives of transdisciplinary research: Early attitudes,expectations, and tensions

Transdisciplinary approaches are becoming increasingly adopted as a way to research complex socio-environmental problems. Conceptually, transdisciplinarity aims to foster meaningful knowledge co-production through integrative and participatory processes that bring together diverse actors, disciplines, and knowledge bases. In practice, transdisciplinarity is more ambiguous. While there is a growing body of literature on such approaches, there remains no widely-accepted definition, concrete framework, or empirical strategy for how to carry out a transdisciplinary project. We propose that this lack of explicit structure and entrenched meaning leaves space for transdisciplinary approaches to be shaped by the evolving network of participating scientists and stakeholders, according to their perspectives of the approach and what it embodies. Here, we examine the perspectives of a diverse group of actors (n = 42) embarking on a 10-year transdisciplinary research project focused on building resilience to natural hazards and disasters in New Zealand. We present the findings of qualitative surveys and group interviews that investigate stakeholders’ and scientists’ early perspectives of transdisciplinary, or co-created, research. The study represents the first stage of longitudinal research that will continue over the course of the project. Results show that early actors in the project share an overall consistent understanding of co-created research. Participants described a process that integrated diverse people and knowledge; created benefits on both a social and personal level; fostered clear, two-way dialogue; and overcame pragmatic and intrinsic challenges. Collectively, participants agreed with adopting transdisciplinary approaches to natural hazard, risk, and resilience research, with stakeholders showing a stronger degree of agreement than scientists. While attitudes towards transdisciplinarity were overall positive, a number of underlying conflicts emerged in regards to carrying out new modes of knowledge production within traditional social and institutional structures. These conflicts result in a tension that is felt by actors involved in transdisciplinary projects early on, and in some cases, influences perception of their ability to fully participate in such an approach. Evaluating actor perspectives and expectations early in the transdisciplinary process can give insight into how attitudes, expectations, and conflicts might shape transdisciplinary efforts, and can provide relevant parameters for assessing change over time.