Assessing the impact of policy-driven agricultural practices in Karnataka, India

The classical approach of assessing sustainability with respect to its three underlying pillars, ecological, economic, and social, is adopted in this paper, with an added emphasis on estimating the simultaneous effects of each pillar on the other two. The paper assesses the impact of policy-driven changes in cultivation practices in five districts in the south-western Indian state of Karnataka. A comparative statics analysis using a simultaneous equations model is developed to capture the stability of each pillar into the future and their concurrent interactive impacts and trade-offs. Ecological and economic impacts of policies favoring organic farming are estimated to be uniformly significant and positive in the study districts. However, the impact on socio-cultural criteria is subjective to the eco-regional context. Cost savings, through producing organic inputs on-farm, maximizes synchrony among the three pillars vis-à-vis sourcing these inputs from the market. With more reliance on organic inputs, better prospects are estimated for small and rain-fed farms compared to large and irrigated farms.     

The role of farmers’ objectives in current farm practices and adaptation preferences: a case study in Flevoland,the Netherlands

The diversity in farmers’ objectives and responses to external drivers is usually not considered in integrated assessment studies that investigate impacts and adaptation to climate and socio-economic change. Here, we present an approach to assess how farmers’ stated objectives relate to their currently implemented practices and to preferred adaptation options, and we discuss what this implies for assessments of future changes. We based our approach on a combination of multi-criteria decision-making methods. We consistently assessed the importance of farmers’ objectives and adaptation preferences from what farmers say (based on interviews), from what farmers actually do (by analysing current farm performance) and from what farmers want (through a selected alternative farm plan). Our study was performed for six arable farms in Flevoland, a province in the Netherlands. Based on interviews with farmers, we reduced the long list of possible objectives to the most important ones. The objectives we assessed included maximization of economic result and soil organic matter, and minimization of gross margin variance, working hours and nitrogen balance. In our sample, farmers’ stated preferences in objectives were often not fully reflected in realized farming practices. Adaptation preferences of farmers largely resembled their current performance, but generally involved a trend towards stated preferences. Our results suggest that in Flevoland, although farmers do have more objectives, in practical decision-making they focus on economic result maximization, while for strategic decision-making they account for objectives influencing long-term performance and indicators associated with sustainability, in this case soil organic matter.     

Organic certification for shrimp value chains in Ca Mau,Vietnam: a means for improvement or an end in itself?

Eco-certification has been used as a tool to mitigate adverse effects of aquaculture production and might thus be understood as a private approach to sustainable ecosystem management. In production forests in Ca Mau, Vietnam, where mangrove have suffered degradation despite legal protection, different projects have targeted reversing this trend by means of private certification using the ‘Naturland’ organic standard as a reference. So far the outcomes have, however, been proven unsatisfactory. With the aim to better understand the reasons for these poor outcomes, a survey of forty households was conducted in a production forest in Rach Goc commune, Ngoc Hien District. We evaluated farmers’ perceptions on mangrove management, the drivers guiding shrimp farming, and whether there was a difference between participants and non-participants in a former ‘Naturland’ organic project. To complement the survey, a range of stakeholders involved in shrimp value chains were interviewed to better understand the terms and benefits of certification. The results of this survey suggested that, when applied to shrimp–mangrove farming systems in production forests in Ca Mau, ‘eco-certification’ and associated benefits are not very satisfactory. The survey results revealed that certified farms do not show significant differences to non-certified farms in terms of social and environmental benefits. As far as the implementation process was concerned, the survey results showed that a failure to integrate local farmers as participants consequently resulted in households becoming ‘objects’ for certification and not project partners with equal weight and power. It appears that rather than being a tool for improvement, ‘Naturland’ certification for shrimp–mangrove farming systems in Ca Mau’s production forests has become an end in itself.     

Analysis of farm-level adoption of soil nutrient management technology by paddy farmers in Karnataka,India

Adoption of soil test-based nutrient management is important for achieving sustainable development of agriculture. The present study analysed the factors influencing the adoption of soil nutrient management technology package comprising adoption of soil test and recommended fertiliser by paddy farmers in the southern Indian state of Karnataka by using field survey data. Bivariate probit model was used to estimate the sequential adoption decisions on soil test and fertiliser application technologies. The study results showed that farmers’ training on fertiliser application and education had positive and significant effect on adoption of soil nutrient technology package. The likelihood of adoption of soil test technology decreases with increase in distance measured from farm to soil test laboratory. Availability of fewer family labour increases the probability of adoption of soil nutrient management technology. These results have significant policy implications for provision of soil testing facilities nearer to villages and for conducting periodical training programmes for encouraging the farmers to adopt soil test-based nutrient management.     

Ecosystem service provision,management systems and climate change in Valsaín forest,central Spain

This study addresses the impact of climate change and management approach on the provision of four ecosystem services (ES) (timber production, protection against gravitational hazards, carbon sequestration and biodiversity) in Valsaín forest in central Spain. The hybrid forest patch model PICUS v1.6 was used to simulate the development of 24 representative stand types over 100 years (2010–2110) in a full factorial simulation experiment combining three management regimes [“business as usual” management (BAU) and two alternatives to BAU (AM1 and AM2)], a no-management scenario (NOM) and six climate scenarios (historic climate represented by the period 1961–1990 and five transient climate change scenarios). Simulations indicated relatively small differences as regards the impact of the different management alternatives (BAU, AM1 and AM2) on the provision of ES as well as a clear improvement in biodiversity, protection and carbon storage under the no-management regime (NOM). Although timber production indicators were the most sensitive to climate change scenarios, biodiversity-related indicators responded fastest to the management regimes applied. Indicators of protection against rockfall and landslides were affected by both management and climate change. The results indicate substantial vulnerability of ES provisioning under the more extreme climate change scenarios at low elevations (1250 m). At higher elevations, the productivity of Scots pine stands may show a moderate decrease or increase, depending on the climate change scenario.     

Effects of a participatory bird census project on knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of coffee farmers in Colombia

This study presents an evaluation of a participatory bird census (PBC) project that has been administered to coffee farmers in Colombia. Our objectives were (1) to evaluate the effect of the PBC project on conservation knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of coffee farmers and (2) to learn about the barriers farmers perceive toward adopting conservation practices. We conducted 261 interviews on four groups to control for the effects of involvement with an environmental coffee certification program (Rainforest Alliance??RA) and the PBC project. The four groups were (1) non-PBC participant, non-RA certified; (2) PBC participant, non-RA certified; (3) non-PBC participant, RA certified; and (4) PBC participant, RA certified. PBC participant/RA and PBC participant/non-RA were more knowledgeable about migratory and threatened birds. PBC participant/RA, PBC participant/non-RA, and non-PBC participant/RA groups believed they had the skills to perform bird conservation practices on their farms. A majority of respondents indicated that they were performing bird conservation practices and had positive attitudes toward birds. Farmers believed that lack of environmental awareness and lack of knowledge were the main barriers to perform bird conservation practices. Evaluating participatory programs with Colombian farmers can reveal environmental literacy improvements, but self-reported surveys may not be adequate to ascertain attitude changes and adoption of conservation practices. Direct observations on individual farms would be required to determine the impacts on such outreach efforts. Bird conservation seems popular with Colombian coffee farmers, and outreach programs that give detailed biodiversity management information could help aid bird conservation efforts on coffee farms.     

Farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability in Dimapur district of Nagaland, India

Certain parts of the State of Nagaland situated in the northeastern region of India have been experiencing rainfall deficit over the past few years leading to severe drought-like conditions, which is likely to be aggravated under a climate change scenario. The state has already incurred considerable losses in the agricultural sector. Regional vulnerability assessments need to be carried out in order to help policy makers and planners formulate and implement effective drought management strategies. The present study uses an ‘index-based approach’ to quantify the climate variability-induced vulnerability of farmers in five villages of Dimapur district, Nagaland. Indicators, which are reflective of the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the farmers to drought, were quantified on the basis of primary data generated through household surveys and participatory rural appraisal supplemented by secondary data in order to calculate a composite vulnerability index. The composite vulnerability index of village New Showba was found to be the least, while Zutovi, the highest. The overall results reveal that biophysical characteristics contribute the most to overall vulnerability. Some potential adaptation strategies were also identified based on observations and discussions with the villagers.     

中国粮食支持政策该向何处去?--来自商品储备模型量化政策评估的证据

粮食安全是社会稳定、经济发展和国家安全的重要基础,粮食支持政策是粮食安全国家战略的核心抓手。过去以托市收储为主要特征的粮食支持政策曾经有效提高了农民种粮积极性和粮食供应能力,但国内市场矛盾累积和多边贸易争端加剧将托市收储推到改革关口。在改革窗口期,跳出国内研究以经验判断、逻辑推演的传统,采用国际农业政策分析中普遍使用的量化评估方法,精确考察和预测粮食支持手段的政策效应,具有迫切必要性、理论和现实意义。基于此,借鉴Wright&William经典商品储备模型(Commodity Storage Model)分析框架,构建一个考虑社会福利动态最优的小麦市场模型,对调低托市价格/取消托市、实行生产者补贴、“托市+生产者补贴”双层政策和补贴私人储备四种改革措施进行了数值优化和模拟分析,从市场稳定、农民保护、粮食安全、财政成本和黄箱限制五维评价指标,详细刻画不同改革措施的改革效果和政策空间后发现:①取消托市、降低托市价格和补贴生产者均会不同程度冲击市场稳定、农民收益和粮食安全。②“托市+生产者补贴”能够以黄箱限制内的成本达到可观的增产增收效果,私人储备补贴高效率与低效果并存。③托市政策具有优良的稳市效果,双层政策则在产量、收入支撑上效果突出。这意味着不应贸然取消托市,改革取向也不应囿于非此即彼式的政策抉择,而应建立多层次粮食支持体系,收缩托市范围并将其后置,增加生产者补贴力度,适度引入私人民间收储以强化效果、降低成本、培育市场,从而在粮食安全保障能力不削弱的前提下,进一步释放市场活力、降低多边贸易争端风险。     

中国区域低碳发展的情景分析——以江苏省为例

本文以江苏省为例,旨在对我国地方层面的低碳经济发展(目标年为2020年)进行探讨,并通过设定基准情景(BAU),低碳经济政策情景(LES),以及进一步推进低碳发展的国际合作与技术转移情景(ICS)三种政策情景对江苏省未来中长期能源需求与二氧化碳排放强度进行分析,提出我国地方层面实现2020年二氧化碳减排目标所需要的发展路径与对策.研究表明,在地方和区域层面上实现2020年二氧化碳排放强度在2005年的基础上降低40%-45%的目标是有可能的,通过采取发展低碳经济的相关措施,到2020年,江苏省的能源需求将比基准情景减少28%,二氧化碳排放强度将在2007年的基础上削减50%,而通过积极参与国际合作和国际间的技术转移,将有可能将二氧化碳排放强度在2007年的基础上削减52%左右.     

Sustainability of rice production systems: an empirical evaluation to improve policy

An evaluation is needed to monitor the progress of sustainable development (SD) in rice production systems. The purpose of this study is to provide policy inputs, examine the sustainability of rice production, and determine major policy areas. A requisite set of 12 indicators of three dimensions of SD, namely economic, was generated by employing an assemblage of top–down and bottom–up approaches. The data were gathered from farm households’ survey as well as in-depth discussion with stakeholders from the regions that represent irrigated, rain-fed lowland, rain-fed upland, flood-prone, and saline-prone rice-growing ecosystems in Bangladesh. By constructing composite indicators, the results revealed that 44 % of rice growers were economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially developed. The irrigated rice production system was found to be the most sustainable. The path analysis measured the contribution of the indicators to the index, and results highlighted that rice growers’ knowledge, skills, and social networks development, improving land productivity, and integrated nutrient management were essential for promoting sustainable rice production. However, the study findings suggest that pluralistic (i.e., government and non-government) agricultural advisory services can serve as an engine of transition to rice production sustainability in which a multi-year planning and strategy formulation are crucial besides investing in the modernization of extension services. Overall and ecosystem-specific policy implications that emerged from the findings of this study are outlined.     

基于行为与意愿悖离视角的农户亲环境行为研究——以有机肥施用为例

作为一种亲环境的农业生产资料,施用有机肥可改善当前的农业环境污染现状.为探究农户亲环境行为与意愿悖离的原因所在,以有机肥施用为例,基于农户实地调查数据,运用二元Logistic模型,从认知特征、心理特征和外部情境因素,对导致农户在施用有机肥这一亲环境行为过程中所产生的行为与意愿的悖离现象背后的原因进行分析.结果表明:农户有机肥施用行为与意愿存在悖离,农户对有机肥了解情况、感知行为控制、社会责任感、社会规范、身体状况、文化程度、家庭收入、地块数和有机肥收益是该现象的成因.此外,进一步分析结果表明,对文化程度较高的农户而言,农业环境污染认知水平越高、农业环境污染对自身健康影响认知水平越高,其有机肥施用行为与意愿悖离的可能性越小;对较大年龄和女性农户而言,居住地与地块距离越远、地块周边交通状况越差,其有机肥施用行为与意愿悖离的可能性越大.据此提出应提升文化程度较高农户的整体认知水平、加强对施用有机肥的宣传、合理制定有机肥施用社会规范、加大对有机肥施用措施的补贴力度、在尽量照顾较大年龄和女性农户前提下调整耕地并进一步降低耕地细碎化程度等政策建议,以促进农户有机肥施用意愿向行为的转化.     

作业补贴与农户绿色生态农业技术采用行为研究

绿色生态农业技术是农业可持续发展的关键,中国提出建立以绿色生态为导向的农业补贴制度,探索政府购买服务等作业补贴方式,促进绿色生态农业技术推广。但是“补给谁”“如何补”“补多少”等政策操作问题尚未很好解决。本文以农作物秸秆机械化还田技术作业补贴为例,基于江苏、山东、黑龙江三省622户农户2018年实地调查数据,综合评估了绿色生态农业技术作业补贴政策及补贴方式(即补贴种植户和补贴作业服务组织)对农户绿色生态农业技术采用行为的影响。结果表明:第一,作业补贴政策对农户是否采用绿色生态农业技术和采用时间均有显著正向影响,补贴发放给农户的地区,农户更倾向于采用绿色生态农业技术,且采用时间更早。第二,相对于无农机的农户而言,有农机的农户更倾向于采用生态农业技术,且采用时间更早。第三,农户受教育程度、家庭劳动力人数、是否规模户、技术培训对农户是否采用生态农业技术和采用时间有显著正向影响。第四,农户类型、是否加入农民专业合作社、家庭劳动力人数、技术培训对农户是否获得补贴有显著正向影响。据此,政府需要继续扩大绿色生态农业补贴的技术类型及实施区域,适当提高重点区域补贴额度,补贴对象应当向种植户倾斜;为农户提供技术指导服务,加强绿色生态农业技术培训,提升农户生态农业理念;根据不同规模种植户禀赋特征制定相应推广政策,让不同类型农户享受到绿色生态农业技术的益处;鼓励获得补贴的农机户或服务组织等积极提供生态农业技术作业服务,使其真正成为推动农户采用绿色生态农业技术的重要途径。     

Toward sustainable adaptation to future climate change: insights from vulnerability and resilience approaches analyzing agrarian system of Iran

There is no certainty that adaptation to climate change is sustainable, and new approaches to assess current climate change adaptation trajectories are sorely needed. In this paper, we review the farmer-focused approaches (typical of vulnerability approaches) and agro-ecosystem-focused approaches (typical of resilience approaches). We propose that a combination of the two may be a better way to conceptualize sustainable adaptation to future climate change within an agro-ecological system. To test our hypothesis, we use the case study of Iran, a land that has shown both tremendous resilience and vulnerability in its agro-ecological system. We explore the changes that have occurred in the Iranian farming system and their implications for farmers’ resilience to climate change through an integrated lens combining vulnerability approaches and resilience approaches. During the previous five decades, we describe how Iranian peasants have become small farmers, the land tenure system has changed from a traditional landlord-sharecropping system to family farms, and the quantity and quality of the agro-ecological resources have changed considerably. Our integrative approach provides important insights for both research and policy. We show that combining the two approaches can have far-reaching implications for farmers’ adaptation to future climate change knowledge, policy, and practice since one approach aims to decrease farmers vulnerability and the other approach aims to build resilient agro-ecosystems.     

Farmer typology, future scenarios and the implications for ecosystem service provision: a case study from south-eastern Spain

Farming communities are increasingly expected to manage their agricultural activities in ways that ensure sustainable flows of a wide range of ecosystem services for society. The land use and management choices that farmers make are dependent upon their socio-economic characteristics and background, and in turn have important implications for the landscape and associated ecosystem services. Thus, a better understanding about the linkages between the characteristics of farmers, farm management and land use is important for managing multifunctional agro-ecosystems. In this paper, we first develop a typology of farmers for Torrealvilla catchment in Murcia, Spain, according to the characteristics of their households and farm management (e.g. the farmer’s age, household income, water access, land tenure and farm labour). This analysis distinguishes six types of farmers. Secondly, we analyse the link between farmer typology and the farmers’ responses to a number of scenarios. The scenarios describe different likely changes to agriculture in the catchment in terms of environmental constraints (irrigation water availability and rainfall pattern) and environmental policy regulation (water taxation and subsidies). This exercise enables us to explore the range of future land use changes that are likely to occur in the study area. The results indicate that: rain-fed agriculture is expected to experience gradual but extensive abandonment; vegetable/fruit farming and pig/animal rearing are likely to stagnate or even decline; and growing of grapes is likely to expand. Thirdly, we qualitatively evaluate how future land use changes are likely to affect key ecosystem services in the study area including future agricultural production and associated local income generation, erosion control, maintenance of the groundwater table and various cultural services associated with a heterogeneous agro-ecosystem. Particular changes such as expansion of grape production will increase food production and local income at the cost of further depletion of the aquifer and increased risk of salinisation. The outcomes of the study highlight that, to be effective, the design of agri-environmental schemes and other government interventions (e.g. specific compulsory regulations on farming practices and associated water use) should carefully take into account the characteristics of the farmers within the area of interest, their land uses and the possible diversity of responses to policy and environmental drivers. Opportunities exist for future studies quantifying the extent of the impacts of ecosystem service provision through formal models combining farmers’ land use decision-making and spatially explicit modelling of landscape processes.     

Can current management maintain forest landscape multifunctionality in the Eastern Alps in Austria under climate change?

In Central Europe, management of forests for multiple ecosystem services (ES) has a long tradition and is currently drawing much attention due to increasing interest in non-timber services. In face of a changing climate and diverse ES portfolios, a key issue for forest managers is to assess vulnerability of ES provisioning. In a case study catchment of 250 ha in the Eastern Alps, the currently practiced uneven-aged management regime (BAU; business as usual) which is based on irregularly shaped patch cuts along skyline corridors was analysed under historic climate (represented by the period 1961–1990) and five transient climate change scenarios (period 2010–2110) and compared to an unmanaged scenario (NOM). The study addressed (1) the future provisioning of timber, carbon sequestration, protection against gravitational hazards, and nature conservation values under BAU management, (2) the effect of spatial scale (1, 5, 10 ha grain size) in mapping ES indicators and (3) how the spatial scale of ES assessment affects the simultaneous provision of several ES (i.e. multifunctionality). The analysis employed the PICUS forest simulation model in combination with novel landscape assessment tools. In BAU management, timber harvests were smaller than periodic increments. The resulting increase in standing stock benefitted carbon sequestration. In four out of five climate change scenarios, volume increment was increasing. With the exception of the mildest climate change scenario (+2.6 °C, no change in precipitation), all other analysed climate change scenarios reduced standing tree volume, carbon pools and number of large old trees, and increased standing deadwood volume due to an intensifying bark beetle disturbance regime. However, increases in deadwood and patchy canopy openings benefitted bird habitat quality. Under historic climate, the NOM regime showed better performance in all non-timber ES. Under climate change conditions, the damages from bark beetle disturbances increased more in NOM compared with BAU. Despite favourable temperature conditions in climate change scenarios, the share of admixed broadleaved species was not increasing in BAU management, mainly due to the heavy browsing pressure by ungulates. In NOM, it even decreased and mean tree age increased. Thus, in the long run NOM may enter a phase of lower resilience compared with BAU. Most ES indicators were fairly insensitive to the spatial scale of indicator mapping. ES indicators that were based on sparse tree and stand attributes such as rare admixed tree species, large snags and live trees achieved better results when mapped at larger scales. The share of landscape area with simultaneous provisioning of ES at reasonable performance levels (i.e. multifunctionality) decreased with increasing number of considered ES, while it increased with increasing spatial scale of the assessment. In the case study, landscape between 53 and 100 % was classified as multifunctional, depending on number and combinations of ES.     

多重压力下重点生态功能区农户的生计适应性研究——以甘南黄河水源补给区为例

重点生态功能区对维护国家和区域生态安全至关重要,农户作为该区最主要的经济活动主体和最基本的生态环境保护单元,其对生计压力的适应性直接关系到重点生态功能区主体功能的发挥。本文以地处青藏高原东缘的甘南黄河水源补给区为例,基于入户调查数据,分析了农户的生计压力、适应能力及适应策略,并利用多元logistic回归模型探明了影响适应策略选择的关键因素。结果表明:①甘南黄河水源补给区有近90%的农户遭受多重生计压力的冲击,其中,“自然+社会+经济”型压力是该区农户面临最多的生计压力组合。②经济示范区农户的适应能力最高,恢复治理区次之,重点保护区最低;遭受“自然+社会”型压力冲击的农户适应能力最高,遭受“自然+社会+经济+政策”型压力冲击的农户适应能力最低。③甘南黄河水源补给区有87.45%的农户采取多种适应策略来应对生计压力,其中,选择“扩张+援助+收缩”型适应策略的农户占比最大。④自然资本、人力资本、社会资本、自然压力的严重程度和生计压力的多样化程度是影响适应策略的关键因素。鉴于此,政府应加大生态环境保护力度,拓宽农户增收渠道,建立多元化信贷机制,加强偏远地区基础设施建设,完善社会保障体系,提高农户在面临生计压力时的适应能力,促进生计可持续发展。     

农地整治权属调整中农户认知对行为响应的作用机制--基于改进TPB及多群组SEM

农地整治权属调整是实现农业规模化和现代化的重要手段,而农户有效参与是推动权属调整的内在动力,研究农地整治权属调整中农户认知对其行为响应的作用机制,有助于高效引导农户参与权属调整,并为制定农地整治权属调整的政策提供科学依据。基于改进计划行为理论和湖北省11个县(市、区)1044份农户抽样调查数据,采用多群组结构方程模型探究了农地整治权属调整中不同类型农户认知对其行为响应的作用机制。结果表明:农地整治权属调整中农户行为逻辑符合改进计划行为理论,农户的行为态度、主观规范、知觉行为控制交互影响行为意愿,进而转换为行为响应,政府支持在行为意愿和行为响应之间起到部分中介作用。总体上,农户行为响应是"自发性""诱发性"和"约束性"三重行动逻辑的结合,且"自发性"占主导地位。多群组结构方程估计结果表明,纯农型与兼业Ⅰ型农户的行为响应受到"自发性""诱发性"和"约束性"三重影响,兼业Ⅱ型农户受到"自发性"和"诱发性"双重影响,非农型农户仅受到"诱发性"单一影响。因此,为引导农户积极参与农地整治权属调整,应该分别针对各类农户相应地提高其参与的"自发性"和"诱发性",降低"约束性",充分发挥农村社会经济组织的作用,将四种不同类型农户的利益需求统筹考虑,降低权属调整过程中利益协调难度。     

Scenario analysis for regional decision-making on sustainable multifunctional land uses

Land-use patterns are influenced by both top-down and bottom-up (local) factors, with their interactions varying in both space and time. This provides a major challenge to decision-making for sustainable multifunctional landscapes. A cross-scale scenario structure has been developed to integrate top-down and bottom-up context based upon the familiar IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios framework. Qualitative scenario storylines are converted into multiple quantified simulations of regional land-use change using a series of rules, with information translated across scales using a hierarchical land-use classification. Land-use parcels (fields) are used as key landscape reference units representing the local dimension of regional changes. Biophysical limitations on land use are represented through land capability classes (climate, soils and topography). Socio-economic factors are characterised in reference to global drivers, policy targets or local preferences. A flexible stochastic software tool (LandSFACTS) ensures spatiotemporal coherence of land-use allocation simulations consistent with scenario storylines. Scenario development is designed to be interactive, bridging ‘problem-focussed’ and ‘actor-focussed’ approaches. A case study is presented from NE Scotland, where plans to enhance multifunctionality through new woodland are evaluated against drivers of globalisation and climate change. Competing priorities, such as food security, mean that in some scenarios, a policy objective for woodland expansion to occur on farmland cannot be met. Woodland expansion would then have to occur on uncultivated upland areas. Scenario analysis has highlighted specific sensitivity to change in ‘marginal’ agricultural areas, with the varying influence of different top-down or bottom-up factors leading to divergent potential outcomes.