Feasibility of lignin as additive in metalworking fluids for micro-milling

The conventional additives in metalworking fluids (MWFs) have effects in improving the machining conditions. However, many additives can lead to environmental contamination and health problems. In this paper, lignin obtained from wood is considered as a new “green” additive in MWFs. Lignin has been used as additives in other areas like pasted lead electrodes and polypropylene/coir composites but has never been applied in cutting fluids. In this paper, lignin is dissolved in 5% conventional MWF aqueous solutions in 8 different concentrations through injection and atomization methods. Then, experiments are conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of lignin containing MWFs in micro-milling operations. The performance is compared with that of 5% conventional cutting fluid in terms of machining forces, tool wears, and burr formations. The results show that the concentration of 0.015% lignin leads to the least cutting forces, tool wear and burrs. The results also show that an appropriate concentration of lignin in MWFs can help to improve the cooling and lubrication performances during machining. The results of this paper thus indicate that lignin has a potential to be used as an additive in metalworking fluids.     

Analytical model of metalworking fluid penetration into the flank contact zone in orthogonal cutting

Metalworking fluids (MWFs) are used widely in machining process to dissipate heat, lubricate moving surfaces, and clear chips. They have also been linked to a number of environmental and worker health problems. To reduce these impacts, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) sprays of MWF delivered in air or CO₂ have been proposed. MQL sprays can achieve performance comparable with conventional water-based or straight oil MWFs while only delivering a small fraction of the fluid. This performance advantage could be explained by the enhanced penetration into the cutting zone that results from delivering MWF in high pressure and precise sprays. To explore this hypothesis, an analytical model of MWF penetration into the flank face of the cutting zone is developed and validated using experimental data. The model is based on a derivation of the Navier–Stokes equation and the Reynolds equation for lubrication and applied to an orthogonal cutting geometry under steady-state conditions. A solution to the model is obtained using a numerical strategy of discretizing the analytical scheme with two-dimensional centered finite difference method. Penetration into the cutting zone is estimated for MQL sprays delivered in air, CO₂ and N₂ as well as two conventional MWFs, straight oil and semi-synthetic emulsion. The model suggests that conventional MWFs, do not penetrate the cutting zone fully and fail to provide direct cooling to the flank zone where wear is most likely to occur. MQL sprays do penetrate the cutting zone completely. Using convective heat transfer coefficients from a previous study, a finite element heat balance is carried out on the tool to understand how each fluid impacts temperature near the flank tip of the tool. The results of the modeling effort are consistent with experimental measurements of tool temperature during turning of titanium (6AL4V) using a K313 carbide tool. The prediction of temperature near the flank indicates that MQL sprays do suppress temperatures near the flank effectively. These results help explain the low levels of tool wear observed for some MQL sprays, particularly those based on high pressure CO₂. This modeling framework provides valuable insight into how lubricant delivery characteristics such as speed, viscosity, and cutting zone geometry can impact lubricant penetration.     

Design and evaluation of an atomization-based cutting fluid spray system in turning of titanium alloy

Tool life has been a vital issue in machining titanium alloys. Recently, an atomization-based cutting fluid (ACF) application has been found to be an effective approach for cooling and lubrication in micromachining operations. In this study, an ACF spray system is developed for macro-scale turning of Ti–6Al–4V. The spray system is designed to minimize interaction between the fluid droplets, and the gas nozzle to control the divergence of the fluid droplets. Experiments are conducted to study the effect of five specific ACF spray parameters including fluid flow rate, spray distance, impingement angle, and type and pressure level of the droplet carrier gas on cutting forces, tool life, and chip characteristics. It has been observed that the combination of lower pressure (150 psi) air-mixed CO₂ with a higher flow rate (20 ml/min) and a larger spray distance (35 mm) produces a significantly longer tool life and broken chips. The results also reveal that the ACF spray system can extend tool life up to 40–50% over flood cooling.     

Micro-flood (MF) technology for sustainable manufacturing operations that are coolant less and occupationally friendly

This paper presents a new technology for minimizing the use of metalworking fluids (MWFs) during the machining process that is atomization-less and occupational friendly. Micro-flood (MF) technology utilizes direct contact between the cutting tool and the MWF without the interaction of a gas medium. Experiments were conducted in high volume mass production environment turning HSLA (high strength low alloy) SAE 070Y steel. Machining performance and total air mass particulates were investigated in dry machining, Near dry machining (NDM) via atomized spray mist and MF technology. Open-atmosphere air monitoring indicated that total mass particulates behaved in an almost linear fashion with respect to gas atomization pressure, whereas the MWF flow rate demonstrated logarithmic trends in NDM applications using an atomized spray. Nozzle orientations directed upward into the air also produced higher mg/m³ concentrations (such as flank) than chip and rake face orientations that were directed down. Greater separation existed at higher gas atomization pressures, MWF flow rates and by changing the MWF type. At extreme limits, nozzle orientation affected mg/m³ concentration as much as 4–5 mg/m³ for water-miscible MWFs and 15–22 mg/m³ for non-water-miscible MWFs. Tool-life performance varied greatly among MWF type and flow rate, and in all cases MF technology performed better than NDM using an atomized spray mist. Direct and consistent MWF penetration to cutting zone using MF technology lowered tool-wear on the average of 12–75% compared to NDM at the same MWF flow rate. Compared to dry machining, NDM improved tool-wear on the average by 20–243%. In one case, tool-wear performance was improved by 616% at 0.15 mm using MF technology compared to dry machining at a nominal 0.925 mm tool-wear. Overall, a large mass reduction of particulates can be achieved employing MF technology that would have been unrealistic for an open-atmosphere machining environment employing an atomized spray mist. On the average, MF technology can maintain a total air mass particulate of less than 0.4 mg/m³ in the occupational work zone using MWF flow rates up to 1260 ml/h, regardless of the MWF classification. Atomized spray mist applications are capable meeting the 5 mg/m³ OSHA limit if MWF flow rates are less than 160 ml/h, air pressures are less than 0.137 MPa (20 psi) using water-miscible MWFs and air pressures are less than 0.0344 MPa (5 psi) using non-water-miscible MWFs.     

Machining Performance and Health Effects of Cutting Fluid Application in Drilling of A390.0 Cast Aluminum Alloy

Environmental issues in machining have led to a push to curtail the use of cutting fluids. However, cutting fluid effects on part quality, process planning, and operator exposure to aerosols need to be first studied. The effects of cutting fluid application on hole accuracy and mist generation have been studied for blind-hole drilling of A390.0 aluminum alloy. Different cutting fluid types and application modes were tested under varying conditions of cutting speed, feed, and hole depth. The cooling and chip-transporting ability of cutting fluids was found to have the maximum effect on dimensional accuracy. Dry cutting yielded holes with the least accuracy, while mist lubrication was found to give superior dimensional accuracy to dry cutting but had the worst aerosol concentration. Flooding with synthetic cutting fluid gave the best overall results.     

Assessing the Performance of a Magnetostrictive-Actuated Tool Holder to Achieve Axial Modulations with Application to Dry Deep Hole Drilling

For machining operations such as drilling and tapping, the challenge of achieving dry machining is difficult due to the significant role that cutting fluid plays in lubrication and chip removal. A new approach for dry deep hole drilling of aluminum is presented. This new method utilizes a magnetostrictively actuated tool holder to modulate the axial position of a drill tip and thus vary the chip size. Under appropriate modulation conditions, small chips are produced that are relatively easy to evacuate through the drill flutes. The development of the magnetostrictive tool holder system is described and its performance is evaluated. The results of drilling tests performed with the magnetostrictive tool holder system are reported, and the new tool holder is demonstrated to offer promise as an alternative to drilling with a cutting fluid.     

Experimental investigation of turning AISI 1045 steel using cryogenic carbon dioxide as the cutting fluid

The intensive temperatures in high speed machining not only limit the tool life but also impair the machined surface by inducing tensile residual stresses, microcracks and thermal damage. This problem can be handled largely by reducing the cutting temperature. When the conventional coolant is applied to the cutting zone, it fails to remove the extent of the heat effectively. Hence, a cryogenic coolant is highly recommended for this purpose. In this paper, an attempt has been made to use cryogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) as the cutting fluid. Experimental investigations are carried out by turning AISI 1045 steel in which the efficiency of cryogenic CO₂ is compared to that of dry and wet machining with respect to cutting temperature, cutting forces, chip disposal and surface roughness. The experimental results show that the application of cryogenic CO₂ as the cutting fluid is an efficient coolant for the turning operation as it reduced the cutting temperature by 5%–22% when compared with conventional machining.It is also observed that the surface finish is improved to an appreciable amount in the finished work piece on the application of cryogenic CO₂. The surface finish is improved by 5%–25% in the cryogenic condition compared with wet machining.     

Modulation-assisted high speed machining of compacted graphite iron (CGI)

The application of controlled, low-frequency modulation (～100 Hz) superimposed onto the cutting process in the feed-direction – modulation-assisted machining (MAM) – is shown to be quite effective in reducing the wear of cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools when machining compacted graphite iron (CGI) at high machining speeds (>500 m/min). The tool life is at least 20 times greater than in conventional machining. This significant reduction in wear is a consequence of the multiple effects realized by MAM, including periodic disruption of the tool–workpiece contact, formation of discrete chips, enhanced fluid action and lower cutting temperatures. The propensity for thermochemical wear of CBN, the principal wear mode at high speeds in CGI machining, is thus reduced. The tool wear in MAM is also found to be smaller at the higher cutting speeds (730 m/min) tested. The feed-direction MAM appears feasible for implementation in industrial machining applications involving high speeds.     

钛金属材料干摩擦磨损特性研究

目的研究钛金属材料干摩擦磨损失效机制。方法选用TA2工业纯钛和TC4钛合金材料,采用CETR UMT-3多功能摩擦磨损测试仪进行往复摩擦磨损试验,采集摩擦系数曲线,计算摩擦系数均值,从动态和静态分析钛金属材料的摩擦特性。采用Micromet-6030型自动显微硬度计测量样品材料表面硬度值,通过表面硬度分析耐磨损性能。采用Nova Nano SEM 650场发射扫描电镜并配置能谱仪对磨损表面和磨屑进行微观形貌观察和元素成分计量分析,从微观角度分析钛金属材料的磨损机理。采用Olympus Lext OLS3000-R型激光共聚焦显微镜测量磨损体积和轮廓,并观察磨损表面的三维形貌。结果频率对钛金属材料的摩擦系数和耐磨损性能影响较大,随着频率的加快,摩擦系数增大,数据跃变幅度增大,磨损体积随之增大。载荷对摩擦系数影响相对较小,随着载荷增大,在摩擦初期,摩擦系数有下降交汇趋势;摩擦后期,摩擦系数才明显上升,载荷与磨损体积之间基本呈线性增长关系。钛金属材料的磨痕呈现为"擦后型,随着载荷的增大和频率的加快,磨损体积轮廓呈现出加深变宽的趋势。TC4的表面硬度约为359.2 HV,TA2的表面硬度约为247.8 HV,前者比后者高出约111.4 HV。在相同试验条件下进行干摩擦磨损试验,TA2的磨损体积约为TC4的2.5倍,TA2的耐磨损性能相对较差。TA2的磨屑为细小的颗粒状磨屑,磨损表面存在严重的剥层脱落特征;TC4的磨屑粒径大小不一,在低频低载状态下,磨损表面有犁沟痕迹,不存在明显的剥落坑。随着载荷和频率的增大,摩擦表面层出现裂纹和碎化剥落现象。结论 TA2的磨损机制主要是剥层磨损和磨粒磨损。在低频低载状态下,TC4的磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损和氧化磨损,随着载荷和频率的升高,在瞬时闪现温度和载荷的作用下,其磨损机制主要为粘着磨损和剥层磨损。     

Study of specific energy and friction coefficient in minimum quantity lubrication grinding using oil-based nanolubricants

An investigation on minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) grinding was carried out with the scope of documenting the process efficiency of oil-based nanolubricants. The nanolubricants were composed of MoS₂ nanoparticles (<100 nm) over coated with organic agents, dispersed in two different base oils—mineral oil (paraffin) and vegetable oil (soybean). Surface grinding tests were carried out on cast iron and EN 24 steel under different lubrication conditions—MQL using nanolubricants (varying compositional chemistry and concentration of nanoparticles), pure base oils (without nanoparticles) and base oils containing MoS₂ microparticles (3–5 μm), and flood grinding using water-based coolant. Specific energy, friction coefficient in grinding and G-ratio were used as measurands for determining the process efficiency. Results show that MQL grinding with nanolubricants increases the process efficiency by reducing energy consumption, frictional losses at the wheel–workpiece interface and tool wear. The process efficiency is also found to increase with increasing nanoparticle concentration. Soybean and paraffin based-nanolubricant performed best for steel and cast iron, respectively, showing a possible functional relationship between the compositional chemistry of nanolubricant and the workpiece material, which will be the goal of future work.     

Performance-Based Predictive Models and Optimization Methods for Turning Operations and Applications: Part 3—Optimum Cutting Conditions and Selection of Cutting Tools

This paper presents a summary of recent developments in developing performance-based machining optimization methodologies for turning operations. Four major machining performance measures (cutting force, tool wear/tool life, chip form/chip breakability, and surface roughness) are considered in the present work, which involves the development and integration of hybrid models for single and multi-pass turning operations with and without the effects of progressive tool wear. Nonlinear programming techniques were used for single-pass operations, while a genetic algorithms approach was adopted for multi-pass operations. This methodology offers the selection of optimum cutting conditions and cutting tools for turning with complex grooved tools.     

Tool wear of coated drills in drilling CFRP

This study aimed to investigate the wear of certain coated drills when drilling carbon fiber reinforced composites (CFRP). Three different drills were used in the drilling experiments: uncoated, diamond coated and AlTiN coated carbide (WC–Co) drills. The tool wear in CFRP machining was quite different from that in conventional metal machining. The primary wear type was a dulling or blunting of the cutting edge, which has been referred to as edge rounding wear or edge recession. In this paper, a hypothesis has been developed to explain the edge rounding wear in CFRP machining. Due to the fracture-based chip formation of CFRP, there is lack of the work material stagnation zone in front of the cutting edge, which normally prevents the edge wear in metal machining. Series of wear lead to rapid dulling of the cutting edge. The resistance to edge rounding wear on the coated as well as uncoated drills has been investigated. The diamond coating significantly reduces the edge rounding wear. However, AlTiN coated drills showed no visible improvement over the uncoated carbide drill, despite of their high hardness, thus not protecting the drill. The wear mechanisms of the uncoated carbide drill and coatings are discussed. It is believed that the 2-body and 3-body abrasive wear fail to explain the observed tool wear in CFRP drilling. However, the wear of the coatings and uncoated carbide substrate from tribo-meter tests correlated well with the tool wear in the CFRP drilling. Therefore, the tribo-meter test can be used to screen the prospective tool materials before carrying drilling experiment.     

High aspect ratio micromachining of glass by electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM)

Micromachining of glass is essential for several microfluidic components, micro-pumps, micro-accelerometers, micro-reactors, micro-fuel cells and several biomedical devices. Unique properties such as high chemical resistance, thermal stability and transparency give glass scope for additional applications. However, poor machinability of glass is a major constraint, especially in high aspect ratio applications of glass in microsystem technology. Micro electrochemical discharge machining (micro ECDM) is an emerging nontraditional fabrication method capable of micromachining ceramic materials like glass. While surface features less than 100 μm have been successfully machined on glass, machining high aspect features is a challenge. Machining accuracy at high depths is severely affected due to overcut and tool wear. In this paper, high aspect ratio microtools fabricated in-house have been used for deep microhole drilling on glass using low electrolyte concentration. An aspect ratio of 11 has been achieved. The results show that lower electrolyte concentration reduced overcut by 22%, thus increasing the aspect ratio of the micro holes. Lowering the electrolyte concentration also reduced the tool wear and hole taper by 39% and 18% respectively.     

Investigation of chipping and wear of silicon wafer dicing

Wafer dicing chipping and blade wear processes in transient and steady stages were investigated. Dicing blades with two different diamond grit sizes were used to cut wafers. In the cutting experiments, the dicing blades with two different diamond grit sizes were used to cut wafers and for a given type of wafer, the cooling water temperature, cutting feed speed, and rotational speed were fixed. The chipping size, blade surface wear area and surface roughness of the wafer were measured at cutting distances of 50, 150, 300, 975, 1350, and 1900 m, respectively. Cutting debris of cutting distances of 300 m and 1900 m was collected and analyzed. The correlation between blade surface properties and chipping size was investigated. Based on this experimental system, attention is to pay to examine the correlation between blade surface properties and chipping size for transient stage and steady stage. In transient stage, the roughness of dicing blade increases rapidly. This will rapidly increase the chipping size. In steady stage, the chipping size decreases slowly with the decreasing roughness of blade surface. This concludes that blade surface condition is an important factor that affects the chipping size. Moreover, in transient stage, diamond grits that are salient or less bonded to the blade detach leave caves on the blade surface which increases surface roughness of the blade and the chipping size. In steady stage, the heights of grits become even and the chipping size decreases accordingly.     

Evaluation of near-dry machining effects on gear milling process efficiency

One of the main environmental pollution sources related to machine building industry is the huge amount of cutting fluids which are supplied during the machining processes. In order to avoid the problems induced by cutting fluids' usage, considerable progress has been recently made in the field of near-dry machining (NDM). Converting conventional processes to minimal quantity lubrication (MQL) methods imposes new tasks' classification within the tribiological system in order to guarantee the process safety and product quality. This paper gives an overview on some requirements to be considered for a successful MQL application into industrial practice. Its last part is focused on the evaluation of NDM effects on the gear milling process efficiency, with respect to hob wear, surface quality, cooling effect, and environment protection.     

Study of ultrasonic assisted cryogenically cooled EDM process using sintered (Cu–TiC) tooltip

In most EDM operations, the maximum contribution in the total operation cost is the tool cost. Electrode wear is a major problem in EDM process. Therefore, in this paper, the process performance of sintered copper (Cu)–titanium carbide (TiC) electrode tip in ultrasonic assisted cryogenically cooled electrical discharge machining (UACEDM) has been studied. The performance parameters studied in this paper are electrode wear ratio (EWR), material removal rate (MRR), surface roughness (SR), out of roundness and surface integrity. The process parameters considered in this study are discharge current, pulse on time, duty cycle and gap voltage. Cermet was fabricated, having copper content of 75% and titanium carbide content of 25%, by mixing, pressing, and sintering. The performance of the newly formed cermet electrode tip is compared with conventional copper electrode tip for UACEDM process and analyzed. It has been observed that EWR and out of roundness decreases when cermet electrode tip is used as compared to conventional tooltip. It has also been observed that MRR and SR increase when cermet tooltip is used. The surface cracks density and crack width on workpiece machined by cermet tooltip have been found to be lesser as compared to the specimen machined by conventional tooltip.     

Application of Taguchi method to selection of optimal lubrication and cutting conditions in face milling of AlMg3

This paper outlines the Taguchi optimization methodology, which is applied to optimize the cutting parameters in face milling when machining AlMg₃ (EN AW 5754) with HSS (high speed steel) tool under semi-finishing conditions in order to get the best surface roughness and the minimum power consumption. Beside the conventional flood lubrication, the investigations include the minimal quantity lubrication and the dry milling. These environment-friendly cutting techniques are considered two practical ways to the cleaner manufacturing in the context of the sustainable production. The parameters evaluated are the cutting speed, the depth of cut, the feed rate and the cooling lubrication techniques (cutting fluid flow). The appropriate orthogonal array, signal to noise (S/N) ratio and Pareto analysis of variance (ANOVA) are employed to analyze the effect of the mentioned parameters on the good surface finish (surface roughness). This paper illustrates the application of the techniques for single performance characteristics optimization, which employs the weighting factors to each of the S/N ration of the responses to obtain a multi-response S/N ratio for each trial of the orthogonal array and, finally, a single optimal process parameters setting. Using Taguchi method for the design of experiments (DOE), it is investigated the significant influence and the parameters interaction effect with minimum number of trials as compared with a full factorial design.     

Cryogenic Machining of Tantalum

A new approach for the machining of tantalum is presented. The new approach is a combination of traditional turning and cryogenically enhanced machining (CEM). In the tests, CEM was used to reduce the temperature at the cutting tool/workpiece interface, and thus reduce the temperature-dependent tool wear to prolong cutting tool life. The new method resulted in a reduction of surface roughness of the tantalum workpiece by 200% and a decrease of cutting forces by approximately 60% in experiments. Moreover, cutting tool life was extended up to 300% over that in the conventional machining.     

Energy Partition and Cooling During Grinding

High temperatures in grinding can cause thermal damage to the workpiece. This paper presents an overview of quantitative methods to calculate grinding temperatures and the energy partition to the workpiece. It is shown that the energy partition, and consequently the grinding zone temperature, depends on the type of abrasives, fluid application conditions, and grinding process parameters. For regular grinding with conventional aluminum-oxide abrasive wheels, the energy partition typically ranges from 60% to 85%. However, for creep-feed grinding with slow work speeds and large depths of cut, cooling by the fluid at the grinding zone reduces the energy partition to less than 5%. For grinding with cubic boron nitride (CBN) superabrasive wheels, the energy partition is about 20% due to the high thermal conductivity of the CBN abrasive. However, this may be reduced from 8% to 5% for grinding with porous vitrified CBN wheels at high removal rates due to the combined effect of the high thermal conductivity of CBN abrasive and cooling by the fluid at the grinding zone.     

Experimental investigation of the machining induced residual stress tensor under mechanical loading

Residual stress induced by machining is complex and difficult to predict, since it involves mechanical loads, temperature gradients or phase transformation in the generation mechanism. In this work, an experiment with a statistical design for the residual stress tensor was performed to investigate the residual stress profile on a machined surface. In order to understand the generation mechanism of residual stress in machining, three variables and workpiece materials were carefully selected to focus on the mechanical loads and avoid the temperature gradients and phase transformation on the machined surface. The mechanical loads considered here included the chip formation force at the primary shear zone and the plowing force at the tool tip–workpiece contact. Depths of cut and rake angles were selected to alter the chip formation force, and the tool tip radius was designed to emphasize the plowing effect. The workpiece material was aluminum 3003. The experimental results showed that the chip formation force provides basic shapes of the residual stress profile for a machined surface. It decides the depth of the peak residual stress below the surface. However, the plowing force was the dominating effect on the surface residual stress, causing high stresses on the surface. The plowing force can shift the surface stress from tensile to compressive. Additionally, the measured stress tensor proved that in-plane shear stress exists for the machined surface.