Estimating the amount of WEEE generated in South Korea by using the population balance model

We estimated the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) generated in South Korea by using the population balance model (PBM) based on a lifespan distribution analysis. This is the first study to apply PBM to estimate WEEE generation in South Korea. The lifespan distribution analysis of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) was based on the results of a questionnaire survey of 1000 households, which were analyzed with the Weibull distribution. As a result, we could estimate the domestic service lifespan and lifespan distribution shape parameter for eight selected products. Using the lifespan distribution analysis and other data, such as the shipment volume and the number of products owned by households, we estimated the amount of WEEE generated for the eight selected items from 2000 to 2020. We found that 1.2 million air conditioners, 2.5 million televisions, 1.3 million microwave ovens, 1.2 million kimchi refrigerators, 17.0 million mobile phones, 1.7 million refrigerators, 2.0 million vacuum cleaners, and 1.4 million washing machines were generated as WEEE in 2010. We also compared our WEEE estimates with the number of items collected through the official WEEE recycling program from 2003 to 2009 and found that in 2009 washing machines had the highest collection rate (28%) and air conditioners had the lowest rate (7%).     

Management of waste electrical and electronic equipment in two EU countries: A comparison

The paper presents some data regarding waste electrical and electronic (WEEE) management in one of the founding countries of the EU, Italy, and in a recent entry into the EU, Romania. The aim of this research was to analyze some problems that countries entering the EU will have to solve with respect to WEEE management. The experiences of Italy and Romania could provide an interesting reference point. The strengths and weaknesses that the two EU countries have encountered can be used in order to give a more rational plan for other countries. In Italy the increase of WEEE collection was achieved in parallel with the increase of the efficiency of selective Municipal Solid Waste collection. In Romania, pilot experiences were useful to increase the awareness of the population. The different interests of the two populations towards recyclable waste led to a different scenario: in Romania all types of WEEE have been collected since its entrance into the EU; in Italy the “interest” in recycling is typically related to large household appliances, with a secondary role of lighting equipment.     

Mobile phone collection, reuse and recycling in the UK

Mobile phones are the most ubiquitous electronic product on the globe. They have relatively short lifecycles and because of their (perceived) in-built obsolescence, discarded mobile phones represent a significant and growing problem with respect to waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). An emerging and increasingly important issue for industry is the shortage of key metals, especially the types of metals found in mobile phones, and hence the primary aim of this timely study was to assess and evaluate the voluntary mobile phone takeback network in the UK. The study has characterised the information, product and incentives flows in the voluntary UK mobile phone takeback network and reviewed the merits and demerits of the incentives offered. A survey of the activities of the voluntary mobile phone takeback schemes was undertaken in 2008 to: identify and evaluate the takeback schemes operating in the UK; determine the target groups from whom handsets are collected; and assess the collection, promotion and advertising methods used by the schemes. In addition, the survey sought to identify and critically evaluate the incentives offered by the takeback schemes, evaluate their ease and convenience of use; and determine the types, qualities and quantities of mobile phones they collect. The study has established that the UK voluntary mobile phone takeback network can be characterised as three distinctive flows: information flow; product flow (handsets and related accessories); and incentives flow. Over 100 voluntary schemes offering online takeback of mobile phone handsets were identified. The schemes are operated by manufacturers, retailers, mobile phone network service operators, charities and by mobile phone reuse, recycling and refurbishing companies. The latter two scheme categories offer the highest level of convenience and ease of use to their customers. Approximately 83% of the schemes are either for-profit/commercial-oriented and/or operate to raise funds for charities. The voluntary schemes use various methods to collect mobile phones from consumers, including postal services, courier and in-store. The majority of schemes utilise and finance pre-paid postage to collect handsets. Incentives offered by the takeback schemes include monetary payments, donation to charity and entry into prize draws. Consumers from whom handsets and related equipment are collected include individuals, businesses, schools, colleges, universities, charities and clubs with some schemes specialising on collecting handsets from one target group. The majority (84.3%) of voluntary schemes did not provide information on their websites about the quantities of mobile phones they collect. The operations of UK takeback schemes are decentralised in nature. Comparisons are made between the UK’s decentralised collection system versus Australia’s centralised network for collection of mobile phones. The significant principal conclusions from the study are: there has been a significant rise in the number of takeback schemes operating in the UK since the initial scheme was launched in 1997; the majority of returned handsets seem to be of low quality; and there is very little available information on the quantities of mobile phones collected by the various schemes. Irrespective of their financial motives, UK takeback schemes increasingly play an important role in sustainable waste management by diverting EoL mobile phones from landfills and encouraging reuse and recycling. Recommendations for future actions to improve the management of end-of-life mobile phone handsets and related accessories are made.     

WEEE flow and mitigating measures in China

The research presented in this paper shows that Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) issues associated with home appliances, such as TV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and personal computers, are linked in the WEEE flow and recycling systems and are important to matters of public policy and regulation. In this paper, the sources and generation of WEEE in China are identified, and WEEE volumes are calculated. The results show that recycling capacity must increase if the rising quantity of domestic WEEE is to be handled properly. Simultaneously, suitable WEEE treatment will generate large volumes of secondary resources. Environmental problems caused by the existing recycling processes have been investigated in a case study. Problems mainly stem from open burning of plastic-metal parts and from precious metals leaching techniques that utilize acids. The existing WEEE flow at the national level was investigated and described. It became obvious that a considerable amount of obsolete items are stored in homes and offices and have not yet entered the recycling system. The reuse of used appliances has become a high priority for WEEE collectors and dealers because reuse generates higher economic profits than simple material recovery. The results of a cost analysis of WEEE flow shows that management and collection costs significantly influence current WEEE management. Heated discussions are ongoing in political and administrative bodies as to whether extended producer responsibilities policies are promoting WEEE recycling and management. This paper also discusses future challenges and strategies for WEEE management in China.     

Italian WEEE management system and treatment of end-of-life cooling and freezing equipments for CFCs removal

This study presents and analyzes the data of the Italian system for take-back and recovery of waste electrical and electronic equipments (WEEEs) in the start-up period 2008–2010. The analysis was focused particularly on the data about the treatment of end-of-life cooling and freezing equipments. In fact, the wastes of cooling and freezing equipments have a high environmental impact. Indeed, in their compressor oil and insulation polyurethane (PU) foams chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) ozone-depleting gases are still present. In the period 2001–2004 Northern Italy resulted the main source in Europe of CFCs. The European Directive on WEEE management was enacted in 2002, but in Italy it was implemented by the legislative Decree in 2005 and it became operational in 2008. Actually, in 2008 the national WEEE Coordination Centre was founded in order to organize the WEEE pick-up process and to control collection, recovery and recycling targets. As a result, in 2010 the average WEEE collection per capita exceeded the threshold of more than 4 kg per inhabitant, as well as cooling and freezing appliances represented more than one fourth of the Italian WEEE collection stream. During the treatment of end-of-life cooling and freezing equipments, CFCs were recovered and disposed principally by burner methods. The analyses of defined specimens collected in the treatment facilities were standardized to reliably determine the amount of recovered CFCs. Samples of alkaline solid salt, alkaline saline solution, polyurethane matrix and compressor oil collected during the audit assessment procedure were analyzed and the results were discussed. In particular, the analysis of PU samples after the shredding and the warm pressing procedures measured a residual CFCs content around 500–1300 mg/kg of CFCs within the foam matrix.     

Recycling-oriented characterization of small waste electrical and electronic equipment

As a result of the continuous change in the design and function of consumer electrical and electronic products, the mechanical and material properties of the obsolete products, called waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), are highly variable. The variability within WEEE is explained by the number of different appliances, and the heterogeneity in composition of any given appliance.This paper reports on an extended investigation of the properties of WEEE, in particular small appliances. The investigation focuses on the analysis of the composition of about 700 single appliances. Firstly, analytical methods to characterize the waste equipment are described. The results of the experimental analyses show that the mechanical properties, the material composition, the polymer composition and the chemical composition of WEEE vary not only between equipment types with different functions, but also between single appliances within one equipment type. Data on hazardous and valuable substances in selected equipment types are presented.Using detailed data on the composition of individual appliances to calculate rates of recovery for assumed recycling processes demonstrates that the performance of recycling processes depends strongly on the composition of WEEE. Recycling-oriented characterization is, therefore, a systematic approach to support the design and the operation of recycling processes.     

Generation amount prediction and material flow analysis of electronic waste: a case study in Beijing, China.

The draft legislation on e-waste prepared by the Chinese national government assigns management responsibility to local governments. It is an urgent task for the municipal government to plan an effective system as soon as possible to divert the e-waste flow from the existing informal e-waste recycling processes. This paper presents a case study implemented in Beijing, the capital city of China, with the purpose of predicting the amount of obsolete equipment for five main kinds of electronic appliances from urban households and to analyse the flow after the end of their useful phase. The amount to be handled was 885,354 units in 2005 and is predicted to double by 2010. Due to consumption growth and the expansion of urbanization it is estimated that the amount will increase to approximate 2,820,000 units by 2020: 70% of the obsolete appliances will be awaiting collection for possible recycling, 7% will be stored at the owner's home for 1 year on average and 4% will be discarded directly and enter the municipal solid waste collecting system. The remaining items will be reused for about 3 years on average after the change of ownership. The results of this study will assist the waste management authorities of Beijing to plan the collecting system and facilities needed for management of e-waste generated in the near future.     

Charging systems for municipal solid waste: experience from the Czech Republic

The paper presents results of research into municipal waste treatment in the Czech Republic. Its special focus is on the impacts of various municipal solid waste charging systems on separating and recycling efforts of municipalities and households. The municipal solid waste charging systems are shortly described first, including the principles of the relevant Czech legislation. It shows that the Czech waste legislation provides space for implementing Pay-as-You-Throw (PAYT) models in the Czech Republic. The main results of representative surveys conducted by the authors within the EU PAYT project in 2003 in selected Czech municipalities and Prague households are shown. The survey confirmed that in municipalities that apply the PAYT charging system, citizens separate more waste and produce less residual waste. The survey data analysis has also shown which factors contributing to satisfactory waste separation are relevant and should be taken into the account when providing policy recommendations for introducing PAYT charging systems in other cities.     

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management in Korea: generation, collection, and recycling systems

In Korea, generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), or electronic waste (e-waste), has rapidly increased in recent years. The management of WEEE has become a major issue of concern for solid waste communities due to the volumes of waste being generated and the potential environmental impacts associated with the toxic chemicals found in most electronic devices. Special attention must be paid when dealing with WEEE because of toxic materials that it contains (e.g., heavy metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, phthalates, and polyvinyl chloride). If managed improperly, the disposal of WEEE can adversely affect the environment and human health. Environmental regulatory agencies; electronic equipment manufacturers, retailers, and recyclers; environmental nongovernmental organizations; and many others are much interested in updated statistics with regard to how much WEEE is generated, stored, recycled, and disposed of. In Korea, an extended producer responsibility policy was introduced in 2003 not only to reduce the amount of electronic products requiring disposal, but also to promote resource recovery from WEEE; the policy currently applies to a total of ten electrical and electronic product categories. This article presents an overview of the current recycling practices and management of electrical and electronic waste in Korea. Specifically, the generation rates, recycling systems and processes, and recent regulations of WEEE are discussed. We estimated that 1 263 000 refrigerators, 701 000 washing machines, 1 181 000 televisions, and 109 000 airconditioning units were retired and handled by the WEEE management system in 2006. More than 40% of the products were collected and recycled by producers. Four major producers’ recycling centers and other WEEE recycling facilities are currently in operation, and these process a large faction of WEEE for the recovery of valuable materials. Much attention should still be paid to pollution prevention and resource conservation with respect to WEEE. Several suggestions are made in order to deal with electronic waste management problems effectively and to prevent potential impacts.     

Recycling rates of waste home appliances in Taiwan

The objective of this study is to provide a calculation of recycling rates of waste home appliances in Taiwan, for the EPA to amend these rates in order to increase the recycling efficiency. The recycling rate is calculated by a formula according to the statistical results obtained through: (1) an estimation of domestic use of home appliances using time series analysis with multiplicative seasonal ARIMA model, (2) a further estimation of generated waste home appliances based upon the estimated domestic use and the corresponding distribution of lifetime span, and (3) a cost analysis of recycling home appliances based on a sampling survey with stratified systematic sampling conducted among collectors and a survey on five recycling plants of waste home appliances. The suggested recycling rates in this study finally used by the EPA show that all of the recycling rates have increased compared with the rates in previous years. This study also implies that amending the recycling rates may only solve some recycling problems temporarily; however, the recycling system of waste home appliances in Taiwan has to be reformed to increase the recycling efficiency for the long term.     

Composition of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) by direct sampling

This paper describes a direct analysis study carried out in a recycling unit for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in Portugal to characterize the plastic constituents of WEEE. Approximately 3400 items, including cooling appliances, small WEEE, printers, copying equipment, central processing units, cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors and CRT televisions were characterized, with the analysis finding around 6000 kg of plastics with several polymer types. The most common polymers are polystyrene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, polycarbonate blends, high-impact polystyrene and polypropylene. Additives to darken color are common contaminants in these plastics when used in CRT televisions and small WEEE. These additives can make plastic identification difficult, along with missing polymer identification and flame retardant identification marks. These drawbacks contribute to the inefficiency of manual dismantling of WEEE, which is the typical recycling process in Portugal. The information found here can be used to set a baseline for the plastics recycling industry and provide information for ecodesign in electrical and electronic equipment production.     

Potential e-waste generated from households in Indonesia using material flow analysis

Waste of electronic and electrical equipment (e-waste) generated in Indonesia is expected to increase due to high growth of the Indonesian economy and fast development in technology. As Indonesia has not yet had specified criteria on e-waste, in this study, e-waste is defined as any obsolete or unwanted electronic and electrical equipment that is introduced into the recycling and disposal process. The objective of this study is to estimate the e-waste generated in Indonesian households using the method of material flow analysis. The amount of generated e-waste could be used for constructing an e-waste recycling management system in Indonesia. E-waste materials that need to be treated could be known. In this study, some types of equipment, such as television, washing machine, refrigerator, personal computer, and mobile phone, were chosen to be tracers. Using the modified material flow analysis model proposed by Steubing et al. (Waste Manage 30:473–482, 38), the potential e-waste that was generated from households was estimated. The total estimated accumulation of generated e-waste from households in 2015 and 2025 is about 285,000 and 622,000 tonnes, respectively. If a proper recycling system was in place, a new source for valuable materials recovery would be created, as well as protecting the environment and health.     

An evaluation of legislative measures on electrical and electronic waste in the People's Republic of China

With the increasing number of recycling mishaps in connection with waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) in the People's Republic of China, it is imperative that the handling and recycling of WEEE be sufficiently regulated in China. Regulations covering three major issues, namely, take-back issues, controls on hazardous substances in WEEE and the assurance of good environmental management in WEEE plants, were promulgated between 2006 and 2008. The evaluation in this country report shows that few of these regulatory measures have performed satisfactorily in terms of enforcement, of public acceptance and of environmental concerns. In brief, the take-back requirements and the associated financial responsibilities are only vaguely defined; the control on hazardous substances and the so-called "environmental expiry date" requirements cannot be properly enforced, and the resources needed to ensure the satisfactory enforcement of the environmental abatement and pollution control requirements in WEEE plants are overwhelming. In addition, the use of a "multiple enforcement body" approach to the control of hazardous substances in WEEE is an indication that the Chinese government lacks the determination to properly enforce the relevant legal requirements.     

How are WEEE doing? A global review of the management of electrical and electronic wastes

This paper presents and critically analyses the current waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management practices in various countries and regions. Global trends in (i) the quantities and composition of WEEE; and (ii) the various strategies and practices adopted by selected countries to handle, regulate and prevent WEEE are comprehensively examined. The findings indicate that for (i), the quantities of WEEE generated are high and/or on the increase. IT and telecommunications equipment seem to be the dominant WEEE being generated, at least in terms of numbers, in Africa, in the poorer regions of Asia and in Latin/South America. However, the paper contends that the reported figures on quantities of WEEE generated may be grossly underestimated. For (ii), with the notable exception of Europe, many countries seem to be lacking or are slow in initiating, drafting and adopting WEEE regulations. Handling of WEEE in developing countries is typified by high rate of repair and reuse within a largely informal recycling sector. In both developed and developing nations, the landfilling of WEEE is still a concern. It has been established that stockpiling of unwanted electrical and electronic products is common in both the USA and less developed economies. The paper also identifies and discusses four common priority areas for WEEE across the globe, namely: (i) resource depletion; (ii) ethical concerns; (iii) health and environmental issues; and (iv) WEEE takeback strategies. Further, the paper discusses the future perspectives on WEEE generation, treatment, prevention and regulation. Four key conclusions are drawn from this review: global amounts of WEEE will continue unabated for some time due to emergence of new technologies and affordable electronics; informal recycling in developing nations has the potential of making a valuable contribution if their operations can be changed with strict safety standards as a priority; the pace of initiating and enacting WEEE specific legislation is very slow across the globe and in some cases non-existent; and globally, there is need for more accurate and current data on amounts and types of WEEE generated.     

Estimation of future outflows of e-waste in India

The purpose of this study is to construct an approach and a methodology to estimate the future outflows of electronic waste (e-waste) in India. Consequently, the study utilizes a time-series multiple lifespan end-of-life model proposed by Peralta and Fontanos for estimating the current and future quantities of e-waste in India. The model estimates future e-waste generation quantities by modeling their usage and disposal. The present work considers two scenarios for the approximation of e-waste generation based on user preferences to store or to recycle the e-waste. This model will help formal recyclers in India to make strategic decisions in planning for appropriate recycling infrastructure and institutional capacity building. Also an extension of the model proposed by Peralta and Fontanos is developed with the objective of helping decision makers to conduct WEEE estimates under a variety of assumptions to suit their region of study. During 2007–2011, the total WEEE estimates will be around 2.5 million metric tons which include waste from personal computers (PC), television, refrigerators and washing machines. During the said period, the waste from PC will account for 30% of total units of WEEE generated.     

Rare earth element recovery potentials from end-of-life hybrid electric vehicle components in 2010–2030

Increasing attention is currently given to the management of end-of-life (EoL) hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), because approximately two decades have passed since they were first introduced to the market. A HEV would be one of the largest consumers of rare earth elements (REEs), and hence represents the greatest potential for REE recovery in the future. The purpose of this study is to clarify the present and future recovery potential of REEs that are disposed of as EoL HEVs. This study first estimated the numbers of EoL HEVs during fiscal years (FYs) 2010–2030, and then clarified the potential for recovery of REEs from two HEV-specific components—the hybrid transmission and NiMH battery unit. The results suggest that 0.51–0.65 million HEVs will reach the EoL stage in FY2030, compared with only 11,000 HEVs in FY2010. As of FY2030, REE recovery potentials will increase to 220 tons and 2900 tons for EoL hybrid transmission and NiMH battery units, respectively. A total of 49,000 tons of REEs will be contained within HEV-specific components of HEVs still in use. Moreover, the potential for recovery of REEs from EoL hybrid transmissions and NiMH battery units is estimated to equal 35.4 and 92.1 % of respective demand.     

Recycling of WEEE plastics: a review

Electric and electronic equipment (EEE) is swiftly growing in volume, level of sophistication, and diversity. Also, it evolves briskly, moved by innovation and technical change, and draws on numerous and at times rare resources. Waste EEE (WEEE) has evolved into an important societal problem. Recycling and treating WEEE implies occupational as well as environmental hazards that are still incompletely documented. Still, second hand EEE has been exported and treated in Africa, China, and India in a precarious informal context. In developed countries, EEE recycling has been sustained by a wide range of initiatives and motives, such as sustainability, creating jobs, and the value of precious or rare metals. Current EU Directives require a steep reduction of WEEE plastics (WEEP) going to landfill. Mechanical, thermal, and feedstock recycling of WEEP are analysed and some options confronted. Plastics recycling should be weighed against the eventual risks related to their hazardous ingredients, mainly legacy brominated fire retardants and heavy metals. Another paper is related to a somewhat similar problem, yet involving a different mix of plastics: recycling plastics from automotive shredder residue.     

Solid Waste Recycling And Reuse In Bangkok

Materials recovered from solid waste in Bangkok are mainly glass bottles, paper and paper products, plastic products and metals. Materials are separated at three different stages of the collection process: at the source, prior to collection; by the crews of the collection vehicle; and by the scavengers at the dump site. The total daily tonnage of recyclable garbage collected at the source by the waste pickers is estimated at 286 tonnes, about 5% of the garbage collected by the city. There are small scale recycling shops (SSR) located around the main disposal sites where collected materials are sold by the collection crews and the scavengers. The quantity of materials delivered to the SSR shops by the collection crew vary between 1-6 tonnes per day. The amount of materials recovered by the scavengers (at the dump site) varies between 50-150 kg person^-1 day^-1. Therefore around 7.5% of the solid waste is recycled. In Bangkok both formal and informal sectors manufacture paper pulp, cardboard boxes and magazines from the recyclable paper. Paper products which account for 55% of the total waste stream are considered as the largest "product group" in the municipal solid waste. Recyclable glass (1-3% of the total waste stream) or cullet is used to manufacture plain glasses or cups. Plastics constitute about 10-15% of the waste stream. The benefit/cost ratios of production of most of these industries were reported to be higher than 1.5. In order to enhance recycling, legislative measures need to be introduced and enforced. In Thailand, there is, however, no law concerning recycling. There is no incentive for the consumer to separate solid waste for recycling, as the prices of waste in Bangkok are low and inconsistent. Therefore the pricing system should be more organized for recycling to be more effective.     

Cell phone recycling experiences in the United States and potential recycling options in Brazil

This paper presents an overview of cell phone recycling programs currently available in the United States. At the same time, it also provides analyses of the current recycling situation and possible recycling alternatives for Brazil. Although there are several recycling options in the United States, collection rates are still only 10% of all potential devices because customers are not aware of these possibilities. The whole system is financially based on reselling refurbished cell phones and recycled materials to developing countries which represent an effective and strong market. Several recyclers offer funds to collection partners who are either charities or who work with charities while obtaining the materials that they need in order to run their operations. A mobile phone recycling system for Brazil considering the United States experience and the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) principle is suggested. A deposit/refund/advance-recycling fee is proposed which might be implemented as a voluntary industrial initiative managed by PRO Brazil, a producer responsibility organization. One widespread public–private agreement will integrate all mobile phone stakeholders, and environmental education actions and promotional events will promote citizen’s participation.