Water consumption in Barcelona and its regional environmental imprint: a long-term history (1717–2008)

We present the evolution of urban water withdrawal and consumption of Barcelona from the eighteenth to the twenty-first centuries. The boundaries of the urban system have been set into the limits of the current municipality, adjusting the data of earlier periods to include the estimated consumption in former municipalities aggregated to the city. Different sorts of water flows have been either recorded or estimated from scant and indirect information, such as local groundwater extractions obtained from a hydrological model calibrated with historical data on variations in the water table. The changes experienced in catching infrastructures, the regional ecological imprint of the domestic or industrial water consumed together with the rates of growth in population, economic activity and water intensity have been taken into account as driving forces. The series obtained reveal an overall increase in accessibility to safe freshwater, and a corresponding extension of water terrestrial imprints of Barcelona over the Catalan river basins, up to the peak reached in 1967?C1970 both for per capita and total water withdrawn. The subsequent downward trend, mainly driven by a lesser water intensity of the local economy, a halt in population growth, and a recently link to the emergence of a New Sustainable Water Culture in Catalan society, stands out against the alleged need for new transfers from farthest basins such as the Ebro or Roine rivers.     

环境约束下中国省际水资源两阶段效率及影响因素研究

本文把水资源利用系统分为水资源利用阶段和污染物处理阶段,在环境规制下采用考虑非期望产出的两阶段SBM模型,对2001—2014年中国31个省级行政区的水资源利用整体效率和各阶段效率进行测度,并利用空间自相关分析方法对中国各地区水资源利用整体效率的时空特征进行分析,然后运用考虑空间效应因素的空间滞后计量模型和空间误差计量模型从人均水资源量、工业用水量、生活用水量、人均GDP、对外开放程度、产业结构、技术进步等方面对各地区水资源利用整体效率的影响因素进行分析。结果表明:(1)整体上看水资源利用第一阶段效率明显高于第二阶段效率,而整体效率接近于第二阶段效率,第二阶段效率决定了水资源利用整体有效性。(2)通过各阶段投入产出冗余来看,水资源污染物产出过多和处理不足是导致第二阶段效率不高的原因。(3)水资源利用整体效率的空间自相关强度显著大于0,在空间上呈现集聚分布特征,东部沿海地区为H-H集聚类型,中部和西部为L-L集聚类型。(4)各地区水资源利用整体效率存在空间溢出效应,一个地区的整体效率不仅受本地区因素影响,还受临近地区整体效率的影响。(5)在考虑和不考虑空间效应的计量估计结果中,工业用水量对整体效率产生显著的负向影响,而人均GDP、对外开放程度对整体效率产生显著的正向影响。根据实证结果,得出以下结论:一是加强水资源污染物排放管理,增强污水处理能力;二是实现高效工业用水,减少工业用水量;三是发挥各地区水资源禀赋优势,加强区域合作,优化水资源区域配置,促进经济-环境协调可持续发展。     

基于VAR模型的水资源利用与经济增长动态关系研究

基于VAR模型,通过变量平稳性检验和协整分析,广义脉冲响应和预测方差分解分析,利用中国1980-2007年水资源利用和经济增长相关数据,对中国经济增长与水资源利用的长期均衡关系及其动态性进行了实证分析。研究结果表明:①经济增长与总用水量、工业用水量和生活用水量之间存在长期均衡关系,而农业用水与经济增长之间不存在长期均衡关系,这与研究期间中国处于工业化中期阶段的事实相吻合;②经济增长对水资源利用的冲击响应的滞后期短且是非渐进的,而水资源对经济增长产生显著影响的滞后期较长且是非渐进的,我国经济发展中工业用水、生活用水量增加趋势明显,农业用水量随着经济发展出现零增长和负增长;③经济增长对水资源利用的预测方差起着重要作用,而水资源利用对经济增长的预测方差的贡献度较小。建议加强工业用水和生活用水的节水措施,减少工业和生活用水量,实现水资源可持续利用。     

Optimum Supportable Global Population: Water Accounting and Dietary Considerations

In this paper we develop a novel, comprehensive method for estimating the global human carrying capacity in reference to food production factors and levels of food consumption. Other important interrelated dimensions of carrying capacity such as energy, non-renewable resources, and ecology are not considered here and offer opportunities for future work. Use of grain production (rain-fed/irrigated), animal product production (grazing/factory farm), diet pattern (grain/animal products), and a novel water accounting method (demand/supply) based on actual water consumption and not on withdrawal, help resolve uncertainties to find better estimates. Current Western European food consumption is used as a goal for the entire world. Then the carrying capacity lies in the range of 4.5–4.7 billion but requiring agricultural water use increase by 450–530% to 4725–5480 km³, the range based on different estimates of available water. The cost of trapping and conveying such water, will run 4.5–13.5 trillion over 50 years requiring an annual spending increase of 150–400%, straining the developing world where most of the population increase is expected. We reconfirm estimates in the literature using a dynamic model. ‘Corner scenarios’ with extreme optimistic assumptions were analyzed using the reasoning support software system GLOBESIGHT. With a hypothetical scenario with a mainly vegetarian diet (grazing only with 5% animal product), the carrying capacity can be as high as 14 billion. Ecological deterioration that surely accompanies such a population increase would negatively impact sustainable population. Using our approach the impact of ecological damage could be studied. Inter- and intra-regional inequities are other considerations that need to be studied.     

Toward Water Conservation Society: the Connotation and Assessment Indication System

Abstract

Water saving and developing water conservation society are the two key strategies both for wise water allocation and sustainable utilization. The paper analyses the connotation of water saving and water conservation society. Essentially, water saving means freeing up water from non-beneficial uses and providing it to some more productive uses. Basic principles for setting indicator are presented by providing efficient use of water, considering social issues and ecological protection. An integrated assessing water saving system aiming at more sustainable and efficient consumption is given considering unbalanced social and economic development in regions and basins. The hierarchy Indicator system provides qualified tools to the practice of water conservation and evaluates the value for water conservation society construction.     

关于Ramsey模型及其改进的研究和启示

缺水已经成为我国经济发展和社会进步的重要制约因素之一．而对水价的制定到对水资源的利用效率起科十分关键的作用。本文通过对Ramsey模型及其改进的研究．得出如下启示．即实行阶梯水价既有利于实现杜会福利的优化，也可以起到节约水资源的效果。由于阶梯水价机制的设计可以为制度安排、资本进入和市场运行提供更大的弹性空间．因此．本文的政策含义是：在实施阶梯水价的背景下．政府只需对基量水价按边际成本的定价原则来严格规制．从而有效提升水务市场的运行效率。上述举措的优点在于：由于基量水价被严格规制．消费者的基本用水福利可以得到满足；超过基本用水量的水价和再生水价的相对放松规制会鼓励社会资本进入水务行业．使行业运营效率得到提高；国有资本退出水务行业使得政府财政负担减轻，同时．由于放松规制．政府的规制成本也得以降低。最终城市水务行业可以真正做到可持续的发展。     

Regional consequences of the way land users respond to future water availability in Murcia, Spain

Agricultural development in the Murcia autonomous region, Spain, has led to overexploitation of groundwater resources, and climate change will further increase pressures. Policy options to tackle the current unsustainable situation include the development of inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) schemes from wetter regions in the north and the introduction of taxation to further control groundwater abstraction. Under these scenarios, farmers with current access to water could face higher water cost, whereas farmers in areas where water was previously not available could see first time availability of water resources. In this paper, we combine discrete choice-based interviews with farmers in the Torrealvilla catchment, in which they indicate how they would adapt their land use under different scenarios, with an input–output model to assess the aggregate effects of individual land use decisions on the economy and water consumption of the Murcia region. The paper presents steps taken in the development of an input–output table for Murcia, including disaggregation of the agricultural sector, accounting for sector water use and consideration of back- and forward linkages. We conclude that appropriate taxation can lead to better water use efficiency, but that this is delicate as relatively small changes in prices of agricultural products can have significant impacts on land use and water consumption. Although new IBWT schemes would enable water to be used more efficiently, they would considerably increase regional water consumption and the regional economy’s dependence on water. As this is not sustainable under future climate change, water saving development pathways need to be explored.     

Vulnerability of water discharge of large Chinese rivers to environmental changes: an overview

In an era of rapid environmental change, China is facing increasing problems in the management of its large rivers and water resources. The disastrous 1998 Yangtze floods and the emerging water shortages in north China raised further concerns about the potential impact of environmental change on extreme hydrological events such as floods and droughts. Over the past few decades, increasing water consumption by the domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors, as well as a number of human activities such as deforestation, agricultural land expansion, wetland reclamation, construction of reservoirs and roads, water diversion, and sand/stone excavation significantly affect hydro-geomorphic processes such as water discharge and sediment flux throughout China. This paper aims to provide an overview of recent research on the water discharge changes occurring in major Chinese rivers and their vulnerability to environmental change. Most of the rivers, notably in north China, have experienced significant changes in water discharge over the last few decades, indicating that they are vulnerable to climatic variations and human activities. In contrast to north China, the rivers in south China have experienced less change, but some of the detected changes displayed similar trends to those in north China, though at a slower pace. These profound changes, in addition to the on-going projects such as the Three Gorges Dam Project and the South-North Water Transfer Project, will completely alter Chinas waterscape.     

Life cycle energy and CO2 emissions analysis of food packaging: an insight into the methodology from an Italian perspective

Packaging is strictly connected to environmental issues as it is a product characterised by high material consumption rate; it is often transported over long distances and has a short life. Providing environmental analysis is, therefore, urgent to identify energy and resources efficient solutions. The paper, taking advantage of a real case study, presents a life cycle-based comparative analysis among three different food packaging systems. The paper compares the life cycle of tin steel, polypropylene and glass-based packaging of an Italian preserves producer. The analysis leads to the conclusion that, for the baseline scenario, polypropylene packaging represents the greenest solution, whereas glass packaging is the worst choice. The paper presents a scenario analysis varying both the method used for accounting for recycling as well as the recycling rates of the packaging materials. Changes in overall results with parameters analysis changing are calculated and highlighted throughout the paper. The impact of a reuse policy of the glass-based solution is also analysed; a model for disposable glass packaging is proposed and the obtained results are compared with the single use polypropylene and tin steel-based packaging. In order to analyse the impact of different End of Life scenarios on the present case study, collecting as well as recycling rates of some European countries have been used. The results revealed a significant fluctuation both in energy consumption and in CO₂ emission as the nation changes. Summing up, a methodology for packaging environmental impact analysis is applied to a real case study, some crucial aspects of the methodology have been analysed in depth in order to give a contribution in packaging environmental impact analysis.     

湖北水资源现状与可持续利用战略对策

湖北省有十分丰富的过境客水资源，但自产水资源却十分有限，在水资源开发利用中存在许多亟待解决的问题。如地表水污染日趋严重，地下水也存在不容的污染；农业用水占大头，其节水潜力巨大；目前主要是利用地表水，地下水的利用很少；洪涝时时灾害仍然十分严重，并有愈演愈烈的趋势；从长远看，湖北省的水资源问题将主要是污染型短缺的问题；南水北调中线工程将对汉江中下游供水和水质造成不容忽视的影响；在计划体制下形成的水资源     

美国的水权体系:原则、调适及中国借鉴

水权是现代水治理体系中的关键环节;合理的水权制度有助于水资源的优化配置。我国旧有的水资源管理模式中水权不明晰、水权制度尚未建立健全,因而无法适应市场经济发展和水资源高效可持续利用的需要。美国的水权制度与其发达的市场经济相适应,其经验可资借鉴。美国的水资源治理实践表明,建立在市场经济基础之上、以法律和制度为保障的水权制度,对于水资源的高效配置和可持续利用具有积极的促进作用。对水资源财产权的明晰界定是美国水权制度的基石;水权的取得及其权责范围均有明确的法律规定并受法律保护。在保护私有水权的同时,美国水权制度兼顾联邦和地方利益,同时避免外部性产生。各州对水权的确权和管理因各自人文和自然状况的差异而异,但对水资源"合理有益的使用"是各州共有的理念。美国的水治理理念正从偏重水资源的经济价值转向日渐重视水的环境及人文价值。社会公平、效率的增进、交易成本的降低是美国水权制度演进的内在动力。经历了漫长的历史演化,美国的水权管理体系已日臻成熟,但依旧存在不同层面的水权冲突,因此仍然在实践中不断修正调适。我国应学习借鉴美国水治理的有益经验,并积极探索美国经验的中国转化。本文对美国现行水权体系中水权的取得、水权的范围以及水权的变更与中止进行了系统总结,并在此基础上对中国的水权制度建设提出构想,包括:以立法确立和保障水权、建立市场导向的水价形成机制、运用水价杠杆实施有效的水资源需求管理、培育水权交易市场、构建区域性水权管理规范等。     

Measuring environmental degradation by using principal component analysis

The objective of the paper is to measure environmental degradation on the basis of some selected indicators by the application of a simple multivariate technique known as Principal Component Analysis. For this purpose the study considered six variables, namely, GDP per capita, fuel consumption, total fertility rate, water supply, sanitation, and electricity. However, because of unavailability of data, the variables such as technology relating to environment, waste disposal, air pollution, women/gender issues relating to environment, corruption, democracy etc. could not be considered. The results show that principal components explain about 62% of the variations in the level of environmental degradation. The variables like GDP per capita, fuel consumption, water supply and electricity played a major role in classifying the countries in terms of environmental degradation compared to the variables, sanitation and total fertility rate. The findings show that countries which have high GDP per capita, low fuel consumption, higher percentage of people having access to water supply and sanitation as well as electricity ranked higher in terms of environmental quality despite high fertility rate as shown by the spectacular example of Saudi Arabia. By contrast, those countries which have low percentage of population having access to safe water and sanitation as well as electricity, high fuel consumption and high fertility were ranked lower in terms of environmental quality despite high per capita income, as shown by the example of Angola which is placed in lowest position among the 51 selected countries. The results also show that correlation between poverty and environmental degradation is particularly acute in African countries where high population growth is acting as an exacerbating factor. The study concluded that high fertility has much impact on environmental degradation in case of poorer countries than in case of rich countries.

Green customer-based brand equity and green purchase consumption behaviour: the moderating role of religious commitment

The purpose of this study is to investigate the customer-based brand equity (CBBE) of green brands and their impact on green purchase consumption with the moderating effect of religious commitment. Data were gathered from 315 consumers in three large cities in Pakistan and further analysed by partial least square. The results of this study revealed that there is a significant positive nexus between CBBE and green purchase consumption. Additionally, results showed the evidence of religious commitment moderating the relationship between CBBE and green purchase consumption. The findings are helpful to the greening companies, suggesting that they should focus on every component of brand performance in order to achieve the higher ranked performance that ultimately initiates green purchase and repurchase consumption. This research addresses the attitude behaviour gap in green purchase consumption by incorporating the contingent impact of religious commitment.

     

Energy analysis of algae-to-biofuel production chains integrated with a combined heat and power plant

ABSTRACT

This study examines the energy and mass balances of algae cultivation and different post-processing pathways. Flue gases and excess heat from a combined heat and power (CHP) plant are used in algae cultivation, with nutrients from municipal wastewater. In the studied pathways, algae are cultivated in open ponds and photobioreactors with or without artificial lighting. Algal mass is used for methane, biodiesel or ethanol production, or it is combusted in a boiler. Results show that in most process pathways energy output exceeds the energy consumption in processing, and the energy returns are approximately twice as large as the electricity input. A large fraction of input energy is low-temperature heat, while the products have a higher value. Energy outputs from different pathways are similar, but heat and electricity consumption in processing vary significantly. Supercritical water gasification pathway is identified as a possible future option, whereas lipid extraction pathways are suggested to be the most likely candidates for industrial scale operations.     

环鄱阳湖区水足迹的动态变化评价

水足迹模型是计量水资源承载力的一个较新颖且日趋成熟的方法。水资源状况对鄱阳湖区生态系统的平衡、稳定以及生态系统良性循环有着重要意义。将水足迹模型运用于环鄱阳湖区进行实证研究，通过计量模型计算出环鄱阳湖区1989~2008年水足迹的时间序列值，并评价其承载状况。结果显示，近20 a来，环鄱阳湖区的水足迹需求由1989年的735亿m3增加至2008年的110亿m3，呈现出波动上升趋势。至今为止水足迹未超载，但盈余空间呈减少趋势。最后从优化水资源利用、倡导绿色消费和促进区域间贸易交流等降低水足迹的需求和增大水足迹供给的角度提出了提高水足迹承载力的对策。进而从水足迹的角度为环鄱阳湖区提高生态系统承载力提供理论依据，促进江西省鄱阳湖生态经济区的建设     

Globalization and natural resources: the expansion of the Spanish agrifood trade and its impact on water consumption, 1965–2010

Beginning in 1960, the Spanish agricultural sector underwent an intensive process of development, resulting in important structural changes, not only in the sector itself, but also in the relationship of the agrarian system to natural resources. These changes were closely related to the growth of per capita income and Spain’s increasing integration into international markets. In the last five decades, the volume of Spanish agricultural trade has increased strongly, with a concomitant increase in the consumption of domestic water resources, requiring the construction of water infrastructure for irrigation. This paper examines the impact on water use in Spain during a period of economic modernization and trade liberalization. More specifically, we are interested in obtaining virtual water trade flow trends and identifying the major drivers responsible for these trajectories, via a decomposition analysis. Our results point to a large increase in virtual water exports and imports, primarily driven by the scale effect, that is, by the growing integration into international markets. The composition effect and changes in water intensity entailed a moderation in water consumption.     

Integrating energy and land-use planning: socio-metabolic profiles along the rural–urban continuum in Catalonia (Spain)

Abandoning fossil fuels and increasingly relying on low-density, land-intensive renewable energy will increase demand for land, affecting current global and regional rural–urban relationships. Over the past two decades, rural–urban relationships all over the world have witnessed unprecedented changes that have rendered their boundaries blurred and have lead to the emergence of “new ruralities.” In this paper, we analyze the current profiles of electricity generation and consumption in relation to sociodemographic variables related to the use of time and land across the territory of Catalonia, Spain. Through a clustering procedure based on multivariate statistical analysis, we found that electricity consumption is related to functional specialization in the roles undertaken by different types of municipalities in the urban system. Municipality types have distinctive metabolic profiles in different sectors depending on their industrial, services or residential role. Villages’ metabolism is influenced by urban sprawl and industrial specialization, reflecting current “new ruralities.” Segregation between work activity and residence increases both overall electricity consumption and its rate (per hour) and density (per hectare) of dissipation. A sustainable spatial organization of societal activities without the use of fossil fuels or nuclear energy would require huge structural and sociodemographic changes to reduce energy demand and adapt it to regionally available renewable energy.     

Can Labor Out-Migration Reduce Firewood Consumption by Rural Households in Western Mountainous China

Abstract

The relationship between out-migration of labor in the Qinling mountain area and households’ firewood consumption is explored. Migration and remittances reduce households’ firewood consumption due to increases in both income and opportunity cost of firewood collection. Previous studies have been equivocal because they ignored uncertainty in household economy, which is widespread in forest areas of less developed countries. This study provides additional insight by considering vulnerability and subjective assessment of poverty generated by unstable income and an uncertain future. We provide evidence that the amount of firewood consumed depends on income and opportunity cost of firewood collection, but also on a prudent consumption strategy, due to farmers’ subjective assessment of their future possible poverty. We also find out-migration of labor can reduce per capita firewood consumption but subjective poverty also acts against reduction of firewood consumption.     

Identifying implementation gaps in water recycling policy of Beijing municipality

ABSTRACT

Due to its dry climate, growing population, and overexploited groundwater, China’s capital is plagued by water scarcity. Since the late 1980s, Beijing has adopted water reuse solutions to bring relief; today, however, the intentions of these reuse policies are often not reflected in practice. Three significant implementation gaps exist: lack of use of installed decentralized reuse systems, limited understanding of the operation of decentralized treatment plants by operators, and inadequate service of centralized reuse treatment systems. By understanding the cause, impact, and severity of these gaps, Beijing’s policymakers can work to meet existing needs via a range of municipal and national policy-driven actions.

AbbrevationBWA Beijing Water AuthorityCECEPChina Energy Conservation and Environmental Protection GroupCNY Chinese yuanIPEInstitute of Public and Environmental AffairsENGOEnvironmental non-governmental organizationMACMunicipal Action CommitteeMEEMinistry of Ecological Environment MEP Ministry of Environmental ProtectionMEPBMunicipal Bureau of Environmental ProtectionMNRMinistry of Natural ResourcesOECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentO&MOperation and maintenanceSNWTPSouth-North Water Transfer ProjectSOEState-Owned Enterprise     

武汉城市圈水资源及水环境承载力分析

水资源及水环境承载力是衡量区域可持续发展的一项重要指标,对区域经济的发展规划具有重要的指导意义。以可承载的人口数量和GDP作为承载力的表征指标,分别运用单位GDP综合用水量评判法和河流一维水质模型及湖库均匀混合模型计算武汉城市圈不同水平年的水资源及水环境承载力,并用承载度来评价水资源及水环境的承载状态。结果表明:2012、2020和2030年武汉城市圈水资源承载力都处于合理承载状态,但是其水环境承载力处于轻度超载状态。可见,水环境承载力对武汉城市圈的用水限制更为严格。随着社会经济的发展及污水处理技术的进步,水环境状况虽然会有所好转,但与水资源数量这一因素相比,水环境仍是制约武汉城市圈经济社会发展的关键因素。