Influences of perfluorooctanoic acid on the aggregation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes

The aggregation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in the aqueous phase not only inhibits their extensive utilization in various aspects but also dominates their environmental fate and transport.The role of surfactants at low concentration in the aggregation of MWCNTs has been studied,however the effect of perfluorinated surfactants at low concentration is uncertain.To understand this interfacial phenomenon,the influences of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA),and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a control,on MWCNT aggregation in the aqueous phase were examined by the UV absorbency method.Influences of pH and cationic species on the critical coagulation concentration (CCC) value were evaluated.The CCC values were dependent on the concentration of PFOA,however a pronounced effect of SDS concentration on the CCC values was not observed.The CCC values of the MWCNTs were 51.6 mmol/L in NaCl and 0.28 mmol/L in CaCl 2 solutions,which suggested pronounced differences in the effects of Na+ and Ca2+ ions on the aggregation of the MWCNTs.The presence of both PFOA and SDS significantly decreased the CCC values of the MWCNTs in NaCl solution.The aggregation of the MWCNTs took place under acidic conditions and was not notably altered under neutral and alkaline conditions due to the electrostatic repulsion of deprotonated functional groups on the surface of the MWCNTs.     

天然有机物和电解质对水中 C60凝聚行为的影响

以富勒烯(C60)纳米颗粒稳定悬浮液为对象,采用动态光散射技术研究了天然有机物和电解质对其在水中凝聚行为的影响.结果表明,采用甲苯溶剂替换法制备的稳定悬浮液中C60浓度为20 mg·L-1左右,表面呈较高的电负性,粒径在120 nm左右,具有较强的稳定性.投加简单电解质可通过压缩双电层机制使其发生凝聚,并符合经典的胶体稳定性(DLVO)理论.Mg Cl2和Ca Cl2的临界凝聚浓度分别为9.6 mmol·L-1和6.7 mmol·L-1.腐殖酸(humic acid,HA)存在时,投加Na Cl和Mg Cl2可使C60颗粒间有效碰撞概率及凝聚反应速度降低,临界凝聚浓度提高;HA可通过增大C60颗粒间的空间位阻效应,抑制凝聚反应发生,提高其在水中的稳定性.但Ca2+可与HA间发生络合反应,并对C60纳米颗粒产生吸附架桥作用,导致凝聚速度大幅提高,强化凝聚反应发生.水中C60纳米颗粒的凝聚和分散行为将受到有机物性质和电解质种类等复杂因素的影响.     

水中C60纳米颗粒的稳定性研究

以两种C60纳米颗粒悬浮液为对象,研究贮存时间、pH、电解质和有机物等因素对其稳定性的影响.结果表明,溶剂替换法制备的C60纳米颗粒(C60/son)稳定性优于延时搅拌法(C60/aq),可长时间保持稳定;pH升高可使C60纳米颗粒稳定性增强;电解质投加可使C60纳米颗粒的|ζ|减小、粒径增大,促进凝聚的发生;水中C60纳米颗粒凝聚过程可分为慢速凝聚和快速凝聚两个阶段,符合经典胶体稳定性(DLVO)理论.C60/son的临界凝聚浓度:NaCl 321 mmol·L-1、KCl 316 mmol·L-1、MgCl29.6 mmol·L-1和CaCl26.7 mmol·L-1,C60/aq的临界凝聚浓度:NaCl 295 mmol·L-1、KCl 278 mmol·L-1、MgCl27.8 mmol·L-1和CaCl25.9 mmol·L-1,均远高于其在天然水体中的浓度;腐殖酸存在可通过空间位阻效应显著增强水中C60纳米颗粒的稳定性,这表明C60纳米颗粒可稳定存在于典型的水环境中.     

Effect of water chemistry on the aggregation and photoluminescence behavior of carbon dots

Carbon dots are rapidly emerging carbon-based nanomaterials that, due to their growing applications, will inevitable find their way to natural waters; however, their environmental fate is mostly unknown. Carbon dots with different surface functionality were fabricated and characterized by TEM and FT-IR. Their surface charge, given by the zeta potential, and their hydrodynamic diameter in suspension were investigated under a variety of environmentally relevant conditions. The effect of ionic strength was studied in the presence of monovalent (NaCl) and divalent (CaCl₂) cations, for pH levels from 3 to 11; humic acid was used as a model for dissolved natural organic matter. Total potential energies of interactions were modeled by classical DLVO theory. The experimental results showed that water chemistry altered the surface charge of the nanomaterials, but their hydrodynamic size could not be correlated to those changes. Evidence of specific interactions was found for the amino functionalized particles in most cases, as well as the plain carbon dots in the presence of Ca^2 + and humic acid. Nanoparticles remained largely stable in suspension, with some exception at the highest ionic strength considered. DLVO theory did not adequately capture the aggregation behavior of the system. Moreover, cation and/or humic acid adsorption negatively affected the emission intensity of the particles, suggesting limitations to their use in natural water sensing applications. The particular stability shown by the carbon dots results in exposure to organisms in the water column and the possibility of contamination transported to significant distances from their source.     

典型抗生素在多孔介质中迁移特性的对比研究

为系统探究抗生素在饱和多孔介质中的迁移行为,选取两类典型抗生素—磺胺类（Sulfonamides, SAs）和氟喹诺酮类抗生素（Fluoroquinolones, FQs）,通过室内砂柱迁移实验,重点对比研究了水化学条件及介质粒径对两类抗生素迁移的影响.结果表明,不同种类抗生素在饱和石英砂多孔介质中的迁移特性不同.在实验pH（5.6~9.5）条件下,低解离常数使得SAs多以带负电形态出现,因静电斥力导致SAs在石英砂介质中具有强迁移能力,流出液中SAs回收率>97%;pH、离子强度（NaCl、CaCl₂）及介质粒径对抗生素的迁移无显著影响.FQs多呈阳离子形态及两性形态,受静电引力控制,FQs迁移能力相对较弱,但移动性随溶液pH升高而增大,NaCl和介质粒径对FQs迁移影响不显著,竞争吸附导致高浓度CaCl₂促进FQs迁移能力.本研究结果阐明了SAs和FQs在多孔介质中不同水化学条件（pH、NaCl及CaCl₂离子强度）下及不同介质粒径中的迁移过程,可为抗生素环境风险的预测和评估及污染修复提供指导.     

The effect of salinity on waste activated sludge alkaline fermentation and kinetic analysis

The effect of salinity on sludge alkaline fermentation at low temperature(20°C) was investigated, and a kinetic analysis was performed. Different doses of sodium chloride(Na Cl, 0–25 g/L) were added into the fermentation system. The batch-mode results showed that the soluble chemical oxygen demand(SCOD) increased with salinity. The hydrolysate(soluble protein, polysaccharide) and the acidification products(short chain fatty acids(SCFAs), NH+4–N, and PO_4~(3-)–P) increased with salinity initially, but slightly declined respectively at higher level salinity(20 g/L or 20–25 g/L). However, the hydrolytic acidification performance increased in the presence of salt compared to that without salt.Furthermore, the results of Haldane inhibition kinetics analysis showed that the salt enhanced the hydrolysis rate of particulate organic matter from sludge particulate and the specific utilization of hydrolysate, and decreased the specific utilization of SCFAs. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis indicated that the importance of polysaccharide on the accumulation of SCFAs was reduced with salt addition, but the importance of protein and NH+4–N on SCFA accumulation was increased.     

New insight into adsorption characteristics and mechanisms of the biosorbent from waste activated sludge for heavy metals

The adsorption characteristics and mechanisms of the biosorbent from waste activated sludge were investigated by adsorbing Pb2+and Zn2+in aqueous single-metal solutions. A p H value of the metal solutions at 6.0 was beneficial to the high adsorption quantity of the biosorbent. The optimal mass ratio of the biosorbent to metal ions was found to be 2. A higher adsorption quantity of the biosorbent was achieved by keeping the reaction temperature below 55°C. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the biosorption processes, and the developed mathematical equations showed high determination coefficients(above 0.99 for both metal ions) and insignificant lack of fit(p = 0.0838 and 0.0782 for Pb2+and Zn2+, respectively). Atomic force microscopy analyses suggested that the metal elements were adsorbed onto the biosorbent surface via electrostatic interaction. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses indicated the presence of complexation(between –NH2,-CN and metal ions) and ion-exchange(between –COOH and metal ions). The adsorption mechanisms could be the combined action of electrostatic interaction, complexation and ion-exchange between functional groups and metal ions.     

Influences of anion concentration and valence on dispersion and aggregation of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in aqueous solutions

Dispersion and aggregation of nanoparticles in aqueous solutions are important factors for safe application of nanoparticles. In this study, dispersion and aggregation of nano-TiO₂ in aqueous solutions containing various anions were investigated. The influences of anion concentration and valence on the aggregation size, zeta potential and aggregation kinetics were individually investigated. Results showed that the zeta potential decreased from 19.8 to − 41.4 mV when PO₄^3 − concentration was increased from 0 to 50 mg/L, while the corresponding average size of nano-TiO₂ particles decreased from 613.2 to 540.3 nm. Both SO₄^2 − and NO₃⁻ enhanced aggregation of nano-TiO₂ in solution. As SO₄^2 − concentration was increased from 0 to 500 mg/L, the zeta potential decreased from 19.8 to 1.4 mV, and aggregate sizes increased from 613.2 to 961.3 nm. The trend for NO₃⁻ fluctuation was similar to that for SO₄^2 − although the range of variation for NO₃⁻ was relatively narrow. SO₄^2 − and NO₃⁻ accelerated the aggregation rapidly, while PO₄^3 − did so slowly. These findings facilitate the understanding of aggregation and dispersion mechanisms of nano-TiO₂ in aqueous solutions in the presence of anions of interest.     

Layered sphere-shaped TiO2 capped with gold nanoparticles on structural defects and their catalysis of formaldehyde oxidation

We describe here a one-step method for the synthesis of Au/TiO₂ nanosphere materials, which were formed by layered deposition of multiple anatase TiO₂ nanosheets. The Au nanoparticles were stabilized by structural defects in each TiO₂ nanosheet, including crystal steps and edges, thereby fixing the Au–TiO₂ perimeter interface. Reactant transfer occurred along the gaps between these TiO₂ nanosheet layers and in contact with catalytically active sites at the Au–TiO₂ interface. The doped Au induced the formation of oxygen vacancies in the Au–TiO₂ interface. Such vacancies are essential for generating active oxygen species (*O⁻) on the TiO₂ surface and Ti^3 + ions in bulk TiO₂. These ions can then form Ti^3 +–O⁻–Ti^4 + species, which are known to enhance the catalytic activity of formaldehyde (HCHO) oxidation. These studies on structural and oxygen vacancy defects in Au/TiO₂ samples provide a theoretical foundation for the catalytic mechanism of HCHO oxidation on oxide-supported Au materials.     

Ammonium sulfide-assisted hydrothermal activation of palygorskite for enhanced adsorption of methyl violet

Herein,palygorskite(PAL)was activated via a simple hydrothermal process in the presence of ammonium sulfide,and the effects of activation on the microstructure,physico-chemical feature and adsorption behaviors of PAL were intensively investigated.The hydrothermal process evidently improved the dispersion of PAL crystal bundles,increased surface negative charges and built more active –Si–O-groups served as the new"adsorption sites".The adsorption property of the activated PAL for Methyl Violet(MV)was systematically investigated by optimizing the adsorption variables,including p H,ionic strength,contact time and initial MV concentration.The activated PAL exhibited a superior adsorption capability to the raw PAL for the removal of MV(from 156.05 to 218.11 mg/g).The kinetics for MV adsorption followed pseudo second-order kinetic models,while the isotherm and thermodynamics results showed that the adsorption pattern well followed the Langmuir model.The structure analysis of PAL before and after adsorption demonstrated that electrostatic interaction and chemical association of –X–O-are the prominent driving forces for the adsorption process.     

nTiO2在水中的分散沉降行为研究

nTiO2进入水环境后,其存在形态及环境行为主要受水环境因素影响.以P25 nTiO2为研究对象,通过改变nTiO2悬浊液的pH值、电解质和表面活性剂种类,分析了nTiO2的分散、团聚及沉降行为.结果表明,pH通过改变nTiO2颗粒的Zeta电位影响nTiO2在水中的稳定性,等电点附近nTiO2发生显著聚沉.nTiO2颗粒选择性吸附AlCl3、CaCl2、NaCl及Na2SO4电离产生的荷电离子,阳离子的吸附中和了TiO2颗粒表面的负电荷,导致颗粒急速聚沉;阴离子的吸附使颗粒间静电斥力增强,颗粒稳定存在于水中.不同类型的表面活性剂通过改变nTiO2颗粒表面性质,增强nTiO2颗粒在水中的稳定性.运用DLVO理论建立了nTiO2的势能方程,势能曲线拟合结果表明,水环境条件通过影响颗粒间势能大小影响nTiO2在水中的分散沉降行为.     

Enhanced photoelectrocatalytic degradation of ammonia by in situ photoelectrogenerated active chlorine on TiO2 nanotube electrodes

TiO_2 nanotube(Ti NT) electrodes anodized in fluorinated organic solutions were successfully prepared on Ti sheets. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy(FE-SEM) and X-ray diffraction(XRD) were performed to characterize the TiNT electrodes. The linear voltammetry results under irradiation showed that the TiNT electrode annealed at 450°C presented the highest photoelectrochemical activity. By combining photocatalytic with electrochemical process, a significantly synergetic effect on ammonia degradation was observed with Na_2SO_4 as supporting electrolyte at pH 10.7. Furthermore, the photoelectrocatalytic efficiency on the ammonia degradation was greatly enhanced in presence of chloride ions without the limitation of pH. The degradation rate was improved by 14.8 times reaching 4.98 × 10~(-2) min~(-1) at pH 10.7 and a faster degradation rate of 6.34 × 10~(-2) min~(-1)was obtained at pH 3.01. The in situ photoelectrocatalytic generated active chlorine was proposed to be responsible for the improved efficiency. On the other hand, an enhanced degradation of ammonia using TiNT electrode fabricated in fluorinated organic solution was also confirmed compared to TiNT electrode anodized in fluorinated water solution and TiO_2 film electrode fabricated by sol–gel method. Finally, the effect of chloride concentration was also discussed.     

Effect of AlCl3 concentration on nanoparticle removal by coagulation

In recent years, engineered nanoparticles, as a new group of contaminants emerging in natural water, have been given more attention. In order to understand the behavior of nanoparticles in the conventional water treatment process, three kinds of nanoparticle suspensions, namely multi-walled carbon nanotube-humic acid (MWCNT-HA), multi-walled carbon nanotube-N,N-dimethylformamide (MWCNT-DMF) and nanoTiO₂-humic acid (TiO₂-HA) were employed to investigate their coagulation removal efficiencies with varying aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) concentrations. Results showed that nanoparticle removal rate curves had a reverse “U” shape with increasing concentration of aluminum ion (Al^3 +). More than 90% of nanoparticles could be effectively removed by an appropriate Al^3 + concentration. At higher Al^3 + concentration, nanoparticles would be restabilized. The hydrodynamic particle size of nanoparticles was found to be the crucial factor influencing the effective concentration range (ECR) of Al^3 + for nanoparticle removal. The ECR of Al^3 + followed the order MWCNT-DMF > MWCNT-HA > TiO₂-HA, which is the reverse of the nanoparticle size trend. At a given concentration, smaller nanoparticles carry more surface charges, and thus consume more coagulants for neutralization. Therefore, over-saturation occurred at relatively higher Al^3 + concentration and a wider ECR was obtained. The ECR became broader with increasing pH because of the smaller hydrodynamic particle size of nanoparticles at higher pH values. A high ionic strength of NaCl can also widen the ECR due to its strong potential to compress the electric double layer. It was concluded that it is important to adjust the dose of Al^3 + in the ECR for nanoparticle removal in water treatment.     

Water chemistry controlled aggregation and photo-transformation of silver nanoparticles in environmental waters

The inevitable release of engineered silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into aquatic environments has drawn great concerns about its environmental toxicity and safety. Although aggregation and transformation play crucial roles in the transport and toxicity of AgNPs, how the water chemistry of environmental waters influences the aggregation and transformation of engineered AgNPs is still not well understood. In this study, the aggregation of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) coated AgNPs was investigated in eight typical environmental water samples (with different ionic strengths, hardness, and dissolved organic matter (DOM) concentrations) by using UV–visible spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering. Raman spectroscopy was applied to probe the interaction of DOM with the surface of AgNPs. Further, the photo-transformation and morphology changes of AgNPs in environmental waters were studied by UV–visible spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and transmission electron microscopy. The results suggested that both electrolytes (especially Ca^2 + and Mg^2 +) and DOM in the surface waters are key parameters for AgNP aggregation, and sunlight could accelerate the morphology change, aggregation, and further sedimentation of AgNPs. This water chemistry controlled aggregation and photo-transformation should have significant environmental impacts on the transport and toxicity of AgNPs in the aquatic environments.     

Effects of fluoride on the removal of cadmium and phosphate by aluminum coagulation

This study focuses on the effects of pH and fluoride at different molar ratios of fluoride to Al (R_F:Al) on the removal of cadmium (Cd²⁺) and phosphate by Al coagulation. Fluoride at R_F:Al ≥ 3:1 inhibits the removal of Cd over wide Al dose ranges from 5 to 10 mg/L as Al. The removal of phosphate decreases significantly at high R_F:Al of 10:1 whereas at lowered R_F:Al (i.e., ≤ 6:1), an adverse effect is observed only at insufficient Al doses below 2 mg/L. Fluoride shows inhibitive effects towards the removal of Cd at pH 7 and 8 and that of phosphate at pH 6. Fluoride decreases the ζ-potential in both systems, and the decreasing extent is positively correlated to the elevated R_F:Al. The Al fluoride interactions include the formation of Al–F complexes and the adsorption of fluoride onto Al(OH)₃ precipitates, i.e., the formation of Al(OH)_nF_m. Al–F complex formation inhibits Al hydrolysis and increases residual Al levels, and a more significant increase was observed at lower pH. Al–F complexes at high R_F:Al complicate the coagulation behavior of Al towards both negative and positive ionic species. Moreover, fluoride at low R_F:Al shows little effect on Al coagulation behavior towards Cd^2 + and phosphate, and the spent defluoridation adsorbent, i.e., aluminum (Al) hydro(oxide) with adsorbed fluoride at R_F:Al of below 0.1:1, may be reclaimed as a coagulant after being dissolved.     

Carbonyl compounds in dining areas, kitchens and exhaust streams in restaurants with varying cooking methods in Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Eighteen carbonyl species in C₁–C₁₀ were measured in the dining areas, kitchens and exhaust streams of six different restaurant types in Kaohsiung, southern Taiwan. Measured results in the dining areas show that Japanese barbecue (45.06 ppb) had the highest total carbonyl concentrations (sum of 18 compounds), followed by Chinese hotpot (38.21 ppb), Chinese stir-frying (8.99 ppb), Western fast-food (8.22 ppb), Chinese–Western mixed style (7.38 ppb), and Chinese buffet (3.08 ppb), due to their different arrangements for dining and cooking spaces and different cooking methods. On average, low carbon-containing species (C₁–C₄), e.g., formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone and butyraldehyde were dominant and contributed 55.01%–94.52% of total carbonyls in the dining areas of all restaurants. Meanwhile, Chinese–Western mixed restaurants (45.48 ppb) had high total carbonyl concentrations in kitchens mainly because of its small kitchen and poor ventilation. However, high carbon-containing species (C₅–C₁₀) such as hexaldehyde, heptaldehyde and nonanaldehyde (16.62%–77.00% of total carbonyls) contributed comparatively with low carbon-containing compounds (23.01%–83.39% of total carbonyls) in kitchens. Furthermore, Chinese stir-frying (132.10 ppb), Japanese barbecue (125.62 ppb), Western fast-food (122.67 ppb), and Chinese buffet (119.96 ppb) were the four restaurant types with the highest total carbonyl concentrations in exhaust streams, indicating that stir-frying and grilling are inclined to produce polluted gases. Health risk assessments indicate that Chinese hotpot and Japanese barbecue exceeded the limits of cancer risk (10^− 6) and hazard index (= 1), mainly due to high concentrations of formaldehyde. The other four restaurants were below both limits.     

Preliminary investigation of phosphorus adsorption onto two types of iron oxide-organic matter complexes

Iron oxide(FeO)coated by natural organic matter(NOM)is ubiquitous.The associations of minerals with organic matter(OM)significantly changes their surface properties and reactivity,and thus affect the environmental fate of pollutants,including nutrients(e.g.,phosphorus(P)).In this study,ferrihydrite/goethite-humic acid(FH/GE–HA)complexes were prepared and their adsorption characteristics on P at various p H and ionic strength were investigated.The results indicated that the Fe O–OM complexes showed a decreased P adsorption capacity in comparison with bare Fe O.The maximum adsorption capacity(Q_(max))decreased in the order of FH(22.17 mg/g)FH-HA(5.43 mg/g)GE(4.67 mg/g)GE-HA(3.27 mg/g).After coating with HA,the amorphous FH–HA complex still showed higher P adsorption than the crystalline GE–HA complex.The decreased P adsorption observed might be attributed to changes of the Fe O surface charges caused by OM association.The dependence of P adsorption on the specific surface area of adsorbents suggests that the Fe O component in the complexes is still the main contributor for the adsorption surfaces.The P adsorptions on Fe O–HA complexes decreased with increasing initial p H or decreasing initial ionic strength.A strong dependence of P adsorption on ionic strength and p H may demonstrate that outer-sphere complexes between the OM component on the surface and P possibly coexist with inner-sphere surface complexes between the Fe O component and P.Therefore,previous over-emphasis on the contributions of original minerals to P immobilization possibly over-estimates the P loading capacity of soils,especially in humic-rich areas.     

CO2 sequestration utilizing basic-oxygen furnace slag: Controlling factors, reaction mechanisms and V–Cr concerns

Basic-oxygen furnace slag(BOF-slag) contains 35%CaO,a potential component for CO_2sequestration.In this study,slag-water-CO_2 reaction experiments were conducted with the longest reaction duration extending to 96 hr under high CO_2 pressures of 100-300 kg/cm2 to optimize BOF-slag carbonation conditions,to address carbonation mechanisms,and to evaluate the extents of V and Cr release from slag carbonation.The slag carbonation degree generally reached the maximum values after 24 hr slag-water-CO_2 reaction and was controlled by slag particle size and reaction temperature.The maximum carbonation degree of 71%was produced from the experiment using fine slag of0.5 mm under 100℃and a CO_2 pressure of 250 kg/cm~2 with a water/slag ratio of 5.Vanadium release from the slag to water was significantly enhanced(generally 2 orders) by slag carbonation.In contrast,slag carbonation did not promote chromium release until the reaction duration exceeded 24 hr.However,the water chromium content was generally at least an order lower than the vanadium concentration,which decreased when the reaction duration exceeded 24 hr.Therefore,long reaction durations of 48-96 hr are proposed to reduce environmental impacts while keeping high carbonation degrees.Mineral textures and water compositions indicated that Mg-wustite,in addition to CaO-containing minerals,can also be carbonated.Consequently,the conventional expression that only considered carbonation of the CaO-containing minerals undervalued the CO_2 sequestration capability of the BOF-slag by~20%.Therefore,the BOF-slag is a better CO_2 storage medium than that previously recognized.     

The contribution of mediated oxidation mechanisms in the electrolytic degradation of cyanuric acid using diamond anodes

In this work, the contribution of mediated oxidation mechanisms in the electrolytic degradation of cyanuric acid using boron-doped diamond(BDD) anodes was investigated in different electrolytes. A complete mineralization of cyanuric acid was obtained in Na Cl;however lower degrees of mineralization of 70% and 40% were obtained in Na2SO4 and Na Cl O4, respectively. This can be explained by the nature of the oxidants electrogenerated in each electrolyte. It is clear that the contribution of active chlorine(Cl2, HCl O, Cl O-)electrogenerated from oxidation of chlorides on BDD is much more important in the electrolytic degradation of cyanuric acid than the persulfate and hydroxyl radicals produced by electro-oxidation of sulfate and water on BDD anodes. This could be explained by the high affinity of active chlorine towards nitrogen compounds. No organic intermediates were detected during the electrolytic degradation of cyanuric acid in any the electrolytes, which can be explained by their immediate depletion by hydroxyl radicals produced on the BDD surface. Nitrates and ammonium were the final products of electrolytic degradation of cyanuric acid on BDD anodes in all electrolytes. In addition, small amounts of chloramines were formed in the chloride medium. Low current density(≤ 10 m A/cm2) and neutral medium(p H in the range 6–9) should be used for high efficiency electrolytic degradation and negligible formation of hazardous chlorate and perchlorate.     

Ozone concentrations, flux and potential effect on yield during wheat growth in the Northwest-Shandong Plain of China

Ozone (O₃) concentration and flux (F_o) were measured using the eddy covariance technique over a wheat field in the Northwest-Shandong Plain of China. The O₃-induced wheat yield loss was estimated by utilizing O₃ exposure-response models. The results showed that: (1) During the growing season (7 March to 7 June, 2012), the minimum (16.1 ppbV) and maximum (53.3 ppbV) mean O₃ concentrations occurred at approximately 6:30 and 16:00, respectively. The mean and maximum of all measured O₃ concentrations were 31.3 and 128.4 ppbV, respectively. The variation of O₃ concentration was mainly affected by solar radiation and temperature. (2) The mean diurnal variation of deposition velocity (V_d) can be divided into four phases, and the maximum occurred at noon (12:00). Averaged V_d during daytime (6:00–18:00) and nighttime (18:00–6:00) were 0.42 and 0.14 cm/sec, respectively. The maximum of measured V_d was about 1.5 cm/sec. The magnitude of V_d was influenced by the wheat growing stage, and its variation was significantly correlated with both global radiation and friction velocity. (3) The maximum mean F_o appeared at 14:00, and the maximum measured F_o was − 33.5 nmol/(m²·sec). Averaged F_o during daytime and nighttime were − 6.9 and − 1.5 nmol/(m²·sec), respectively. (4) Using O₃ exposure-response functions obtained from the USA, Europe, and China, the O₃-induced wheat yield reduction in the district was estimated as 12.9% on average (5.5%–23.3%). Large uncertainties were related to the statistical methods and environmental conditions involved in deriving the exposure-response functions.