Water policy implementation in the state of São Paulo,Brazil: Key challenges and opportunities

Challenges in implementing water planning and management are common, and the effective implementation of integrated water policies is yet to occur. In Brazil, the state of São Paulo enacted a Water Act in 1991 to ensure water availability for current and future generations based on the principles of decentralization, participation and integration. This research addresses water policy implementation issues by conducting an exploratory case study in the state of São Paulo. Factors affecting the water policy implementation process were analyzed, together with some water resources management practices. The findings indicate four dimensions of key challenges: institutional and governance, political, financial and technical. The stakeholders believe the political and the institutional and governance challenges are more important than the technical and financial ones. Additionally, the results show different levels of involvement in the areas of water policy strategy, the planning and decision-making process, and implementation by the different stakeholders groups. Stakeholders external to the water sector and from local government were considered to be less involved in water-related issues, when compared with stakeholders from the water sector. The study recommends a change in current institutional and governance arrangements in order to influence decisions and investments in different levels and sectors.     

区域生态府际合作治理的碎片化困境及其出路

随着区域一体化程度的加深,我国环境问题逐渐超出特定的行政区划边界而演变为跨行政区环境问题,这需要地方政府间的横向合作以形成跨行政区环境治理,文章通过分析我国地方政府间在生态合作治理中产生的碎片化现象,包括合作理念碎片化、合作动力碎片化、组织结构碎片化以及合作程序碎片化,找到造成地方政府间合作碎片化的原因并给出相应的对策建议,建议包括加快培育地方政府间合作共赢的制度文化,加强地方政府合作的制度建设以及健全政府间合作的运行保障机制。     

国际湿地保护政策及形式的演变研究

湿地丧失与退化已被公认为全球性的生态环境和社会问题。本文在综述相关文献的基础上,将国际湿地政策的演变划分为三个阶段：20世纪60年代以前的湿地开发期,20世纪60年代至90年代间的政策转型期以及20世纪90年代至今的湿地全面保护期。湿地被围垦、转换为农地是湿地开发期最主要的特质,是导致湿地大量丧失与退化的主要肇因;《湿地公约》的签署标志着国际湿地政策进入转型期阶段,倡导湿地保护与合理利用;而美国政府于上个世纪90年代初期提出的湿地“零净损失”政策目标,成为继《湿地公约》签署后推动全球湿地政策发生深刻改变的最主要驱动力之一,标志着国际湿地政策进入全面保护期阶段。     

Effectiveness of the Local Adaptation Plan of Action to support climate change adaptation in Nepal

A key challenge in climate change adaptation in developing countries as a whole, and to handling global change in particular, is to link local adaptation needs on the one hand, with national adaptation initiatives on the other, so that vulnerable households and communities can directly benefit. This study assesses the impact of the Nepal government’s efforts to promote its Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) and its applicability to other least developed countries (LDCs). Based on data gathered from two field studies in Nepal, the research shows that the Nepal’s LAPA has succeeded in mobilizing local institutions and community groups in adaptation planning and recognizing their role in adaptation. However, the LAPA approach and implementation have been constrained by sociostructural and governance barriers that have failed to successfully integrate local adaptation needs in local planning and increase the adaptive capacity of vulnerable households. This paper describes the mechanisms of suitable governance strategies for climate change adaptation specific to Nepal and other LDCs. It also argues the need to adopt an adaptive comanagement approach, where the government and all stakeholders identify common local- and national-level mainstreaming strategy for knowledge management, resource mobilization, and institutional development, ultimately using adaptation as a tool to handle global change.     

日本环境管理咨询体系研究

环境执政能力已成为亚洲发展中国家的主要议题之一.政府通过立法、政策、行政和制度手段,可确保实现良好的执政.作为经济、政治和社会现代化的制度手段之一,环境咨询体系(EAS)在日本得以建立.其针对公众不断增长的对环境净化和保护的需求,增加公众参与政府决策过程的力度.强化环境执政能力的经验教训:①EAS产生的背景,即日本工业化和城市化初期几十年的环境退化和环境立法的艰难历程表明,公众对国家和地方政府的环境保护压力与日俱增.②识别了从"防治污染措施咨询委员会"(ACAP)发展到"中央环境咨询委员会"(CEAC)和"内阁全球环境委员会"(CGEC)的主要变化因素、内容和作用.ACAP主要考虑制定污染防治政策,监测、评估和补偿环境污染(如水俣病、痛痛病、呼吸道疾病等)造成的损害.CEAC和CGEC越来越多地涉及到环境保护中,包括地方、国家及全球尺度的污染预防和环境应急准备.     

Advancing indigenous self-determination through endangered species protection: Idaho gray wolf recovery

As part of the right of indigenous cultures to self-determination, several international bodies have recognized and addressed the role of indigenous communities in natural resources management, including the conservation of biodiversity. In the United States, disagreements regarding the application of the federal Endangered Species Act to Native American tribes have hindered the relationship between the federal and tribal governments on endangered species recovery. Our research examines the efforts of one Native American tribe, the Nez Perce, and the United States federal government to collaborate on federal gray wolf recovery in central Idaho. We interviewed members of the Nez Perce Tribe and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to characterize their relationship and explore the context in which the recovery program was implemented. Respondents attributed the success of the biological aspects of wolf recovery to the robustness of the wolf as a species and to close interagency coordination at the operational level. However, differences of opinion existed between the Tribe and Service concerning program funding, policy planning, and the rights and role of the Tribe in wolf management via co-management and cooperative management regimes. Respondents from both governments noted a clear hierarchical relationship at the strategic level, where policy planning and decision-making rested with the federal government. Lessons drawn from this case study can be applied across the international spectrum to improving partnerships, particularly at the strategic level, between indigenous and non-indigenous governance structures for protecting endangered species.     

Using adaptive governance to rethink the way science supports Australian drought policy

In this paper we show how ideas from a longstanding but little recognised literature on adaptive governance can be used to rethink the way science supports Australian drought policy. We compare and contrast alternative ways of using science to support policy in order to critique traditional commentary on Australian drought policy. We find that criticism from narrow disciplinary and institutional perspectives has provided few practical options for policy makers managing these complex and interacting goals. In contrast, ideas from a longstanding but little recognised literature on adaptive governance have potential to create innovative policy options for addressing the multiple interacting goals of Australian drought policy.From an adaptive governance perspective, the deep concern held by Australian society for rural communities affected by drought can be viewed as a common property resource that can be sustainably managed by governments in cooperation with rural communities. Managing drought assistance as a common property resource can be facilitated through nested and polycentric systems of governance similar to those that have already evolved in other arenas of natural resource management in Australia, such as Landcare groups and Catchment Management Authorities. Essential to delivering these options is the creation of flexible, regionally distributed scientific support for drought policy capable of integrating local knowledge and informing the livelihood outcomes of critical importance to governments and rural communities.     

Multi-level governance for large marine commons: Politics and polycentricity in Palau's protected area network

This paper brings together institutional theories of polycentricity and critical human geography theory on scalar politics to advance understanding of the form and function of nested, polycentric regimes for the governance of large-scale common pool resources. We focus on institutional changes associated with a national marine protected area network in Palau through which national government and NGOs gain influence in local decision-making processes. Influence is gained through an attempt to scale up common-pool resource governance to an ecologically-relevant spatial scale in an effort to protect coral reef resilience and biodiversity across Palau. An institutional approach informed by scalar politics brings into focus potential tradeoffs between organizing governance reform around ecologically versus institutionally relevant scales. Our analysis suggests that prioritization of ecologically-relevant scales in institutional reform resulted in more nested but less polycentric institutional arrangements governing the network. We conclude that less distributed decision-making in the overall nested governance system could threaten the sustainability and resilience of coral reefs in the long-term by constraining institutional innovation and diversity. Results demonstrate the potential for interdisciplinary dialog to advance the research frontier on multi-level governance for large common pool resources.     

The changing winds of atmospheric environment policy

Atmospheric environmental policies have changed considerably over the last several decades. Clearly the relative importance of the various issues has changed over half a century, for example from smoke, sulphur dioxide and photochemical smog being the top priorities to greenhouse gases being the major priority.The traditional policy instrument to control emissions to the atmosphere has been command and control regulation. In many countries this was successful in reducing emissions from point sources, the first generation issues, and to a lesser extent, emissions from mobile and area sources, the second generation issues, although challenges remain in many jurisdictions. However once the simpler, easier, cheaper and obvious targets had been at least partially controlled this form of regulation became less effective. It has been complemented by other instruments including economic instruments, self-regulation, voluntarism and information instruments to address more complex issues including climate change, a third generation issue.Policy approaches to atmospheric environmental issues have become more complex. Policies that directly focus on atmospheric issues have been partially replaced by more integrated approaches that consider multimedia (water, land, etc.) and sustainability issues.Pressures from stakeholders for inclusion, greater transparency and better communication have grown and non-government stakeholders have become increasingly important participants in governance.The scale of the issues has evolved from a local to national, regional and global scales. Consequently the approaches to atmospheric environmental policy have also been amended. The international dimensions of atmospheric issues have grown in prominence and challenge governance and politics with pressures for international cooperation and harmonisation of policies. This is reducing the policy flexibility of national governments.Partially in response to these changes, to manage environmental risks and protect their brands, leaders in the corporate sector have generally found it beneficial to increase responsibility and accountability, including establishing corporate environmental policies, environmental management systems, risk management, sustainability reporting and other measures.This analysis clearly identifies that these changes are inter-related. Acting together they have transformed the way that atmospheric issues are governed in the last several decades in developed countries. Together they have led to governments in many developed countries vacating leadership roles and becoming increasingly managers of the policy process. As the leadership role of governments has been partially eroded, governments are more reliant on persuasion and diplomacy in their relations with stakeholders. As a consequence, governance arrangements have become more complex, multilevel and polycentric.     

中国跨区域水环境保护行政管理体制存在的问题探析及研究

中国以流域为单元实行的统一区域管理虽然已普遍被世界各国政府和学者接受,但在中国并没有形成一个具有统一职权和执行效力的跨区域水环境保护管理机构。以流域水资源管理为例,流域水资源保护机构名义上受水利部与环境保护部的双重领导,但在编制上却是水利部的派出事业单位,负责具体水污染管理事宜的环境保护部门的领导权在实际中并不容易落实。同时水利部和环保部门相应的受各级地方政府领导,其财政权和人事任免权由地方政府掌控,这种地位的不独立性容易使其行为受地方政府意志的支配。另外,在晋升激励和财政分税制的制度背景下,各流域地方政府有意愿和能力干涉环保部门的行为,使各种水环境保护事物让位和屈就于更实惠的地方经济发展。对于此种跨区域水环境保护行政管理体制现存的问题应当进行改善。     

Envisioning robust climate change adaptation futures for coastal regions: a comparative evaluation of cases in three continents

The paper reports on a comparative study of three different cases on vision and strategy development for climate change adaptation planning in (i) The South African Breede–Overberg Catchment, (ii) The Mississippi Estuary-New Orleans region and (iii) The Dutch Rhine-Meuse Estuary. The objective of the paper is twofold: to develop a better understanding of such processes and to further develop the Backcasting-Adaptive Management (BCAM) methodology. A framework for case evaluation is developed using six dimensions: (i) inputs and resources, (ii) future vision, (iii) stakeholder engagement, (iv) methodological aspects, (v) pathway development and (vi) impact. Major conclusions based on a cross-case comparison and testing propositions are (i) participatory vision development is a strong tool for climate change adaptation planning in different governance contexts and shows considerable diversity in its application in these contexts; (ii) a single, shared future vision is not a prerequisite for vision and pathway development and endorsement; (iii) broad stakeholder engagement enriches strategy development, but the involvement of marginal groups requires additional efforts and capacity building; (iv) multiple pathways and robust elements are useful but require novel expertise; and (v) more institutional embeddedness and support for participatory processes lead to better implementation of the outcomes of these processes.     

以SO2排放控制和排污权交易为例分析中国环境执政能力

从中国SO2污染控制政策的演变,以及近年来政府大力推动的排污权交易这一污染控制经济手段试点入手,全面揭示中国环境管理中存在的问题,并从中国政策过程特点以及环境管理的政府治理结构2个角度阐释问题根源.揭示的主要环境问题包括政策的可操作性、政策间的协调性差,政策相互冲突以及政策本身缺乏科学性的论证等问题.中国自上而下的政策过程以及利用后发优势学习引用其他国家经济的政策演变特点是造成这些问题的政策原因,而中央与地方之间关系、政府部门之间、国家环境保护总局内部机构安排等方面存在的问题则是这些问题的政府治理结构根源.最后,从短期、最大可行性角度出发,以国家环境保护总局的建设为主线提出解决问题的建议,强化国家环境保护总局政策制定、协调监督以及执法监管三方面的职能与能力建设.     

Perspectives on capacity building to guide policy and program development and delivery

This paper examines the perspectives of major interest groups on capacity development within the context of the significant contemporary global phenomenon of community-based decentralised governance at catchment scale. It focuses on providing empirical evidence to guide the development and implementation of policies and programs, especially those of governments. The research draws especially from regional governance experiences in Australia, as a country with advanced arrangements, and capacity building experiences in the sectors of health and risk and emergency management as informative arenas of learning. Twenty-two specific capacity building measures were presented in a discussion paper across human, social, institutional and economic dimensions. Perspectives were sought from regional, policy/research and Indigenous interest groups about applying these measures to enhance the effectiveness of the community-based Boards governing Australia's nation-wide network of 56 natural resource management (NRM) organisations. The research identifies a suite of specific measures and, in doing so, demonstrates the benefits of examining other sectors to inform capacity building in the NRM domain. The work highlights the need to better understand and account for differing interest group perspectives about capacity building issues, the application of specific measures, and the outcomes anticipated before developing and implementing policies and programs. While explored in the Australian context, these findings have application to decentralised governance arrangements in other countries.     

面向实施的市级国土空间规划传导思路与技术方法

规划传导是保障国土空间规划实施的关键环节,从理念层面的治理转型、规则层面的事权匹配、空间层面的要素管理入手,对市级规划传导的技术思路与方法途径进行了研究。研究表明：空间规划具有的基础性、有限性和动态性等特征是规划传导的基础出发点,应建立起涵盖理念宽度、事权力度和要素精度的规划传导框架。在此基础上提出双向反馈、权责清单、刚弹结合、尺度容差、动态平衡等技术思路来分步推进规划传导,并以广州为例提出了规划传导实施层面的方法途径,为建立能用、管用、好用的规划传导政策规则和体制机制,为完善国土空间规划体系和推动规划有效实施提供研究支撑。     

Ecological and social aspects of biodiversity conservation on private lands

In recent decades, the growing need for biodiversity conservation and the different means of achieving it have been defined in international and national procedures regulated by governments and parliaments on the one hand, and in governance processes run by different stakeholders on the other. In local contexts, however, people perceive the abstract phenomenon of biodiversity conservation through the environment in which they live and through their social and cultural positions. We examine Finnish forest owners’ experiences and perceptions of biodiversity conservation, and consider the compatibility of these perceptions with national conservation policy. Our work is based on a survey of forest owners and the content analysis of national policy documents. We found that the perceptions of forest owners and the documents of nature conservation policy had elements that both overlapped and contradicted each other, thus reflecting different interpretations of forest ownership and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, the national Forest Biodiversity Program – an outcome of a multilateral governance process – was more successful in combining conservation policy with various perspectives of forest owners than was the authoritatively formulated Nature Conservation Act and Decree. This result indicates that governance processes can address conflicts of interest in the use of natural resources.     

An empirical analysis of energy efficiency measures applicable to cities,regions, and local governments,based on the case of South Korea’s local energy saving program

As highlighted in the outcome of the Paris Agreement at the 21st Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change there has been a recent push for the stronger mitigation actions of cities, regions, and local governments. Energy efficiency is a tool that can be leveraged by not only industry or national governments but also cities, regions, and local governments for mitigation purposes. However, studies on energy efficiency as a mitigation tool thus far have focused on the national or transnational scale, and on certain sectors of industry. The purpose of this paper is to find the most cost-efficient energy efficiency measures (EEMs) at the city, region, and local government level. To that end, this paper examines the yearly energy savings and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction intensity, as well as energy savings and GHG reduction efficiency, in the case of EEMs conducted by South Korean local governments. Yearly energy savings intensity and GHG reduction intensity are estimated to be in the range of 0.094～0.375 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE)/M-KRW (million Korean won) and 0.287～1.180 tCO2e/M-KRW. Results show that inverter installation at water and sewage treatment plants and improvement of pump efficiency are the most cost-efficient EEMs. Moreover, energy savings efficiency and GHG reduction efficiency are within the range of 18.29～45.31 %, at an average of 30.5 % GHG reduction potential. If this reduction potential is applied to the buildings and facilities regulated and run by cities/local governments, there is a worldwide reduction potential of 1.023 billion tCO₂ compared to 2020 business as usual levels.     

基于演化博弈理论的雾霾治理中政府环境规制策略研究

高效、经济治理雾霾（重污染天气）已成为全社会共同行动目标.为验证中央政府制定的系统性激励政策能否有效规避传统环境规制失灵，选取中央政府及地方政府作为博弈模型参与方，将激励机制引入约束条件，建立了中央与地方政府、地方政府与企业的演化博弈模型，从最佳规制效果和规制强度两个维度构建了双方最佳规制策略.研究发现，各地政府在治理雾霾中，引入中央政府规制约束，分配治理成本和提供资金支持，是避免规制失灵的关键.此外，中央与地方应采取差异的规制策略:在中央政府层面，中央政府治理雾霾专项资金分配最优策略应是使资金量（F）与地方政府申报量（p）呈正相关，并且呈边际递减关系；地方政府对于企业的超排行为不应采取严罚的手段，随着企业超排量的加大，更好的规制手段不是加大惩罚力度，而是从更加合理的环境税费（t）以及降低企业边际减排成本[TC_p3'（p₃）]上着手.      

Challenges of connecting international science and local level sustainability efforts: the case of the Large-Scale Biosphere–Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia

The Large-Scale Biosphere–Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA) is a multi-year Brazil-led international environmental science experiment funded by the U.S. National Aeronautics Space Administration, the European Union and Brazil. It is intended to inform decision making under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as well as Brazilian national environmental decision-making related to the Amazon region. Focused on the Amazon region, and primarily on the Brazilian Amazon, the LBA is a case study in issues that can arise when doing globally oriented research in a less developed country setting and a test of assumptions that such research simultaneously benefits global and local levels. This article offers a qualitative evaluation of the extent to which the LBA has achieved its goals and identifies structural obstacles within science that must be overcome to improve the fit between international science programs and efforts to nurture more sustainable use of natural resources in a less developed country.     

Improving cleaner production through the application of environmental management tools in China

Cleaner Production (CP) as a strategy for reducing negative environmental impacts throughout the production processes avoids and decreases pollution at its source and increases the competitiveness of enterprises. Since the establishment of China's goal for quadrupling its gross domestic product between 2000 and 2020, while improving its environmental performance and maintaining social stability, ‘win-win’ concepts such as CP are playing an increasingly prominent role in the country's development plans. Consequently, China's efforts to create a favourable policy and institutional framework for the promotion of CP that includes its unique national “CP Promotion Law” which governs the implementation of all CP activities in the country are encouraging. However, China has encountered significant challenges in improving, on a large scale, the environmental performance of its industries. Factors such as the difficulty in mainstreaming CP in industries, limited institutional resources as well as constraints in financial and technical resources of small and medium-sized enterprises have hindered the widespread adoption of CP. In addition, due to local peculiarities and disparities, different regional approaches for its implementation have evolved. This paper describes and analyses how the application of an environmental management tool in Zhejiang Province has enhanced the environmental, economic and organisational benefits of CP in enterprises.     

中国自然保护区空间分布的经济分析

论文利用2008年自然保护区数据,分析全国自然保护区的空间分布特征,并结合自然保护区所在地的社会经济信息,进行空间统计分析,重点从机会成本和保护资金的角度探求影响自然保护区空间分布的经济因素。论文发现,当前自然保护区的空间分布是既有政策下地方政府符合经济理性的选择,机会成本对自然保护区决策有着重要的潜在影响,在自然保护决策中不容忽视。目前的空间分布也揭示了自然保护区管理资金的困境,特别是对于国家级自然保护区,现有资金机制可能成为推动地方政府在自然保护中管理失效的制度根源。国家应该将自然保护区工作与地方社会经济紧密结合,并对不同压力状态下的自然保护区在资金机制上进行分类管理,以便获得更好的保护成效。