Sharing waters: Post-Rio international water management

Transcending human-defined political and administrative boundaries, the world's transboundary freshwater resources pose particularly challenging management problems. Water resource users at all scales frequently find themselves in direct competition for this economic and life-sustaining resource, in turn creating tensions, and indeed conflict, over water supply, allocation, and quality. At the international scale, where the potential for conflict is of particular concern, significant efforts are underway to promote greater cooperation in the world's international river basins, with notable achievements in the past decade following the Dublin and Rio conferences. Over the past ten years, the international community has adopted conventions, declarations, and legal statements concerning the management of international waters, while basin communities have established numerous new basin institutions. Despite these developments, significant vulnerabilities remain. Many international basins still lack any type of joint management structure, and certain fundamental management components are noticeably absent from those that do. An understanding of these weaknesses, however, offers an opportunity for both the international and basin communities to better respond to the specific institution-building needs of basin communities and thereby foster broader cooperation over the world's international water resources.     

Transboundary River Floods and Institutional Capacity1

Abstract: While transboundary flood events have become more frequent on a global scale the past two decades, they appear to be overlooked in the international river basin (IRB) cooperation and management arena. The present study therefore combined geopolitical measures with biophysical and socioeconomic variables in an attempt to identify the IRBs with adequate institutional capacity for management of transboundary floods. It also classified basins that would possibly benefit from enlarging the institutional capacity related to transboundary floods. Of the 279 known IRBs, only 78 were represented by a transboundary rivers institution. A mere eight of the 153 identified institutions had transboundary flooding listed as an issue in their mandate. Overall, 43 basins, where transboundary floods were frequent during the period 1985‐2005, had no institutional capacity for IRBs. The average death and displacement tolls were found to be lower in the 37 basins with institutional capacity, even though these basins experienced twice as much transboundary floods with significant higher magnitudes than those in basins without institutional capacity. Overall, the results suggested that institutional capacity plays a role in the reduction of flood‐related casualties and affected individuals. River basins such as the Juba‐Shibeli, Han, Kura‐Araks, Ma, Maritsa, Po, Coco/Segovia, Grijalva, Artibonite, Changuinola, Coatan Achute, and Orinoco experienced more than one transboundary river flood, but have not yet set up any institutions for such events, or signed any appropriate treaties focused on floods. These basins were therefore recommended to consider focusing attention on this apparent lack of institutional capacity when it comes to managing transboundary flood events.     

USING COMPUTED STREAM FLOW IN WATERSHED ANALYSIS1

Modifications in the computed climatic water budget have made it possible to achieve good agreement between computed and measured stream flow on both a monthly and annual basis in basins without appreciable winter snow cover. Comparisons of computed and measured stream flow in 28 basins on the Delmarva peninsula show that for some basins the agreement is excellent (regression line essentially equals unity), for other basins the regression line has a slope of one but it is displaced above or below the y=x line, while for other basins, the slope of the regression line differs appreciably from unity. Study of the basins where agreement between computed and measured values is only fair to poor reveals that the patterns of disagreement can be used to provide information on the water holding capacity in the root zone of the soil, on the quantity of deep aquifer recharge within the basin, or on the effect of human modifications within the basin. The technique should also reveal the quantity of interbasin transfers or other consumptive uses within the basin. The water budget, thus, becomes a useful tool to study hydrologic characteristics or their changes over time within a basin.     

Using Global Datasets to Create Environmental Profiles for Data-Poor Regions: A Case from the Irrawaddy and Salween River Basins

The increasing availability of spatial data inspires the exploration of previously less-studied, yet regionally and nationally important areas, such as the Irrawaddy and Salween River Basins in Southeast Asia. This article documents our experience using global datasets to create environmental basin profiles in these two basins. Our approach draws on the concepts of freshwater vulnerability assessments that guided the selection of indicators. Data on land use, population distribution and fertilizer load were used. The unit of analysis was chosen to distinguish areas with similar bio-geographical characteristics, such as the critical delta areas. Results were further discussed for sub-areas that experience relatively the most pressure in terms of examined indicators within the studied area. The river mouths of both rivers had the most intensive land use and high population density. They are also home to important ecosystems and are sensitive to changes in upstream areas. Our study presents a concise and spatially distributed view of the environmental basin profiles of the Irrawaddy and Salween River Basins. The analysis also provides some interesting methodological insights about the potential of public macro-scale datasets for environmental assessment. The spatial approach allowed the analysis of different indicators, providing a platform for data integration as well as a visually powerful overview of the study area. Yet, the use of macro-scale datasets entails challenges. Despite improvements, the assessment process tends to be driven by the availability and quality of data, rather than by the actual research and management needs. The greatest utility of macro-scale datasets lies—at least in data-poor areas—in larger scale comparative analyses between the basins and their different sub-areas.     

The application of information entropy in basin level water waste permits allocation in China

The water waste discharge permits allocation among great river basins in national level is the firs step of national wide water waste management strategy and a key point of total mass control as well. The challenge is coming from the conflict between equality and efficiency. In this research, a new allocation method based on the conception of information entropy and maximum entropy method is introduced into the basin level wastewater permits allocation. Four indexes are chosen to compose a multi-criterion system in information entropy method (IEM) including, GDP, population, water environmental capacity and water resource quantity. The allocation of chemical oxygen demand (COD) in national basin level among the seven great river basins in China is illustrated as a case study.     

The value of cooperation in resolving international river basin disputes

This paper reviews the phenomenon of international river basins, and concludes that the sharing of river basins between and among countries is the rule rather than the exception for the major river systems of the world. The growth of the nation state with rivers as agreed-upon boundaries, as cease-fire lines and as natural defensive lines has led to the carving up of most river basins around the world. More than 200 river basins, accounting for more than 50% of the land area of the Earth, are shared by two or more countries. When population densities were low, there was plenty of water for all and major conflicts were avoided. With the rapid population and economic growth experienced in the past few decades, conflicts over use of water are becoming more important. It is expected that in the near future such conflicts will become much more severe. The paper reviews the literature on attempts to analyse river basin conflicts and negotiate solutions. Some rudimentary game models are examined, and some tentative conclusions, based upon various game theory concepts of stability, are applied to the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin. The paper ends with suggestions on how to plan Pareto-Admissible outcomes for international basins.     

Rethinking the management of transboundary freshwater resources: a critical examination of modern international law and practice

Available freshwater stocks are being depleted and impaired on a widespread basis, with acute shortages an increasingly frequent condition in arid climates. In transboundary basins, water scarcity and pollution compound interstate tension and contribute to human suffering and ecological damage. This article provides theoretical perspectives on shared freshwater disputes and on the evolution of the international law of shared water resources. It argues that the UN Convention on the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (ratified by some countries, but not yet in force) is inadequate as a framework convention in terms of providing general obligations on the future parties or an institutional framework for future action. The paper suggests that three critical concepts be considered in future management of shared water resources: (1) the unitary character of watersheds (where the absence of extra-basin diversions allows); (2) joint or "communitarian" watershed management; and (3) the relevance of international trade to alleviating regional food stress, resulting from local water scarcity. Finally, it proposes the establishment of an international advisory body on shared water disputes, modelled after the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), whose role is codified in the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.     

区域环境司法协作的实践表征及发展理路探析

环境司法协作是促进区域、流域环境整体性治理的重要保障。但当前相关研究侧重某个重点区域、流域的环境司法协作分析,亟待对京津冀、长三角、成渝、长江、黄河等区域、流域环境司法协作实践进行全面的考察和规范分析。可以依据协作目的、内容、空间,将多元化的环境司法协作样态分为政策回应型协作与程序便利型协作、纵向协作与横向协作、省（区、市）内协作与跨省协作等。针对规范性、结构性、机制性等困境,区域环境司法协作需要从纵向协作迈向纵横协作结合、从协议型协作迈向立法型协作、从低位阶协作迈向高位阶协作。未来还需要加强区域、流域、陆海统筹下的立法协同,探索“共享法庭”及其配套治理体系与能力的纳入与应用,推动大数据、区块链、人工智能等新兴技术与司法的深度融合,从而对区域环境司法协作进行全面的规范性补强、结构性调适、协同配合机制的建构及数字化司法转型。     

Scarcity and conflict,key problems in water management: a Mexican case study

Water scarcity has become a key issue in water management. There are two contrasting positions regarding scarcity as a source of conflict or cooperation. Accordingly, it is worth exploring what exactly are the conditions that make water scarcity a source of conflict or cooperation. The history of water conflicts has shown that people are more likely to kill around a water hole than when conflicts grow into national or international issues. This suggests that there may be an inverse relationship between the level of violence and the scale at which the water conflict takes place. A common problem in environmental management has been the lack of effective mechanisms to handle conflict. In the majority of these cases, the main shortcoming was an inability of the parties to identify their differences. Therefore, this research explores the idea that understanding the causes of conflict from the outset, followed by an evaluation, at the local scale, of the conditions, is a necessary precondition to finding appropriate and sustainable solutions. With this background in mind, the objective of this paper is to employ a conflict assessment process in order to explore to the extent to which a collaborative dialogue among stakeholders can be an appropriate approach to conflict resolution. A case study in Mexico is employed as a testing ground.     

Getting to the First Handshake: Enhancing Security by Initiating Cooperation in Transboundary River Basins

How does transboundary water cooperation begin at the initial stages, and how can third parties help to foster said cooperation? Many nations with transboundary waters do not cooperate or have ceased cooperation. Yet cooperation often prevails, resulting in 688 water‐related treaties signed from 1820 to 2007. We address the following: by which practices can development partners best design and implement cooperative projects at the state level to enhance basin water security in the earliest stages? This article identifies strategies for initiating cooperation and lessons drawn from reviewing select cases. We compiled from the Oregon State University Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database all transboundary water resources projects over the last decade with multinational participation. We selected 10 case studies that enhance water security that fit the following filtering criteria: (1) Funding exclusively/primarily from outside sources, (2) Including nonofficial stakeholders in project design/implementation, (3) Absence of formal relations around water resources between or among the riparian nations before the project was discussed, (4) Project design possibly enhancing hydropolitical relations. Findings suggest that to enhance water security, project designs should respect participating riparians' autonomies, create basin‐wide networks of scientists, allow for each partner to garner responsibility for project activities, and consult a diverse group of stakeholders.     

The evolution of regional cross-border water regimes,the case of Deltarhine

In this study, we look at the evolution of a cooperative water regime in the delta of the Rhine catchment. In a Dutch–German case study, we focus on cross-border cooperation on the local and regional scale, describing and analyzing how a remarkably resilient and robust transboundary water regime has evolved over the course of 50 years. Context-, interest- and knowledge-based explanations contribute important insights into the evolution of the Deltarhine regime, and it is shown that the legal, institutional and socio-economic context shapes and constrains regional cross-border cooperation. Surprisingly in this regard, we find that European water directives have not yet played a decisive, catalyzing role for policy harmonization across borders. Finally, we show that key individuals play a crucial role in regime formation and development. We suggest that the presence of entrepreneurs and leaders adds explanatory power to current conceptual frameworks in international river basin management, thus meriting further research.     

Water Resources Modeling of the Ganges‐Brahmaputra‐Meghna River Basins Using Satellite Remote Sensing Data1

Nishat, Bushra and S.M. Mahbubur Rahman, 2009. Water Resources Modeling of the Ganges‐Brahmaputra‐Meghna River Basins Using Satellite Remote Sensing Data. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 45(6):1313‐1327. Abstract: Large‐scale water resources modeling can provide useful insights on future water availability scenarios for downstream nations in anticipation of proposed upstream water resources projects in large international river basins (IRBs). However, model set up can be challenging due to the large amounts of data requirement on both static states (soils, vegetation, topography, drainage network, etc.) and dynamic variables (rainfall, streamflow, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, etc.) over the basin from multiple nations and data collection agencies. Under such circumstances, satellite remote sensing provides a more pragmatic and convenient alternative because of the vantage of space and easy availability from a single data platform. In this paper, we demonstrate a modeling effort to set up a water resources management model, MIKE BASIN, over the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna (GBM) river basins. The model is set up with the objective of providing Bangladesh, the lowermost riparian nation in the GBM basins, a framework for assessing proposed water diversion scenarios in the upstream transboundary regions of India and deriving quantitative impacts on water availability. Using an array of satellite remote sensing data on topography, vegetation, and rainfall from the transboundary regions, we demonstrate that it is possible to calibrate MIKE BASIN to a satisfactory level and predict streamflow in the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers at the entry points of Bangladesh at relevant scales of water resources management. Simulated runoff for the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers follow the trends in the rated discharge for the calibration period. However, monthly flow volume differs from the actual rated flow by (?) 8% to (+) 20% in the Ganges basin, by (?) 15 to (+) 12% in the Brahmaputra basin, and by (?) 15 to (+) 19% in the Meghna basin. Our large‐scale modeling initiative is generic enough for other downstream nations in IRBs to adopt for their own modeling needs.     

Relating landscape characteristics to non-point source pollution in mine waste-located watersheds using geospatial techniques

Landscape characteristics of a watershed are important variables that influence surface water quality. Understanding the relationship between these variables and surface water quality is critical in predicting pollution potential and developing watershed management practices to eliminate or reduce pollution risk. To understand the impacts of landscape characteristics on water quality in mine waste-located watersheds, we conducted a case study in the Tri-State Mining District which is located in the conjunction of three states (Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma). Severe heavy metal pollution exists in that area resulting from historical mining activities. We characterized land use/land cover over the last three decades by classifying historical multi-temporal Landsat imagery. Landscape metrics such as proportion, edge density and contagion were calculated based on the classified imagery. In-stream water quality data over three decades were collected, including lead, zinc, iron, cadmium, aluminum and conductivity which were used as key water quality indicators. Statistical analyses were performed to quantify the relationship between landscape metrics and surface water quality. Results showed that landscape characteristics in mine waste-located watersheds could account for as much as 77% of the variation of water quality indicators. A single landscape metric alone, such as proportion of mine waste area, could be used to predict surface water quality; but its predicting power is limited, usually accounting for less than 60% of the variance of water quality indicators.     

Joint institutional arrangements for addressing transboundary water resources issues—lessons for the GEF

The lofty goals of the 1992 Earth Summit regarding sustainable development will not be achieved without major improvements in the management of transboundary water resources. This paper describes the serious nature of water-related conflicts and environmental damage associated with degradation of marine ecosystems, coastal zones, and shared surface/groundwater systems. Traditional approaches such as international conventions, watercourse agreements with basin organizations, and arbitration have generally fallen short of their objectives. This article suggests that a middle ground centered on multicountry institutional arrangements for joint fact finding, evaluation, and problem resolution may be a more productive approach over the short term to achieve sustainable development. The experience of the International Joint Commission (Canada and U.S.) is described as a way of providing a neutral ground for building trust among nations, for 'leveling the playing field' among small and large countries, and for providing mechanisms for countries to work jointly toward sustainable development of their shared resources without relinquishing their sovereignty. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is playing a catalytic role in assisting countries to address transboundary water resources issues. The paper describes GEF's Operational Strategy and discusses the implications of joint institutional arrangements for the international waters focal area. Given that the environmental security of many nations rests on improved transboundary cooperation, the GEF provides a pragmatic opportunity for countries to cooperatively address these pressing problems.     

Application of a Physical Input–Output Table to Evaluate the Development and Sustainability of Continental Water Resources in Spain

Continental waters are complex resources in terms of a measurable physical quantity, and measuring them requires a good knowledge of total water availability. In this research, an accounting physical input–output table (PIOT) was applied to evaluate total water resources and gross annual availabilities at each stage of the natural-artificial water cycle. These stages are considered subsystems of a continental water resource system describing water transfers for an average year within 13 administrative basins of Spain. Water transfers between various subsystems are characterized by internal flows decreasing the water resource availabilities. The PIOT analysis establishes these internal flows, and the origins and final uses of the total resources for each subsystem. The input-output balance registered an unsustainable negative net accumulation in eight water basins. The PIOT analysis also allowed the calculation of significant indicators such as water resource developments (RDI) and their sustainable use (SUI). RDI and SUI demonstrate that groundwater is a critical resource affecting the environment (e.g., wetlands in the upper Guadiana) and the water supply (e.g., irrigation in the Segura basin). The results of this model suggest that above-/below-ground hydrological links are important when decisions have to be made in order to provide a satisfactory supply of water in Spain. The model integrates the different water basins under territorial criteria, and therefore it may be useful for the Spanish National Hydrological Plan.     

Toward Integrated Environmental Management for Challenges in Water Environmental Protection of Lake Taihu Basin in China

Lake Taihu is the third largest freshwater lake in China. It serves many social, economic, and ecological purposes in the drainage basin. Unfortunately, the water has been heavily polluted due to rapid industrialization and urbanization during the last two decades. Notwithstanding great efforts made so far to improve the water quality, the environmental situation is still far from being optimistic. The basin and the lake are facing a range of severe environmental challenges: rapid socio-economic development continues to place great pressures on the environment, current pollution control projects have many problems from the viewpoint of effectiveness and efficiency of their implementations, and the non-point sources of pollution such as agricultural fields, for which control is more difficult than for industrial point sources, have become the main contributors to serious eutrophication of the lake. Considering the characteristics of the environmental challenges and problems confronting the basin and the lake, we focus on integrated environmental management (IEM) as a promising and effective approach to overcome these predicaments. Current practices and problems of environmental management in the basin are examined, and potential future developments are discussed. Three aspects of the IEM are emphasized: institutional cooperation, public participation, and internalization of environmental externalities. We think these are the most critical for not only the basin but also for the whole of China to achieve a sustainable society.     

Reducing conflict over the Danube waters: equitable utilization and sustainable development

This paper develops the idea that the principle of equitable utilization must be applied in concert with sustainable water use not only in the resolution of specific disputes but in the cooperative management of water resources in general. It illustrates this point with two different cases involving the use of the Danube River. The first is the conflict over the Gabcikovo Nagymaros Dam, which now rests before the International Court of Justice. The author argues that a narrow legal ruling that fails to take into account broader issues of equitable utilization as they relate to sustainable development will not satisfactorily address the long-term questions at stake between the parties. The second involves the situation in the Danube Delta where the potential for conflict exists, but may be minimized through the convention and institutional framework developed to address the environmental degradation and pollution of the Danube River basin, which is based in part on the principle of equitable utilization and the goal of achieving more sustainable water use. The paper provides a brief overview of the geographical features of the Danube River and international water law. It then explores the principle of equitable utilization and sustainable water use in light of the two cases and discusses the implications for the resolution and management of conflicts involving internationally shared water courses.     

Whither La Plata? Assessing the state of transboundary water resource cooperation in the basin

In many ways, current treaty arrangements for cooperation over shared water resources among Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay — the five riparian states in South America's La Plata basin — have been relatively successful. These arrangements, mostly bilateral and trilateral partial coalition agreements and institutions that operate under the aegis of the 1969 La Plata River Treaty, have led to significant economic gains from the treaty arrangements for all five riparian states. But these economic gains have also generated significant externalities — particularly, severe environmental degradation — suggesting that alternate cooperative arrangements may be more optimal. Current work suggests that grand coalitions following principles of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) may provide the most efficient means of distributing the benefits and costs of water resource cooperation equitably across riparian states. Using a theoretical framework developed by Just and Netanyahu (1998 ), we find that the arrangement of partial coalitions that exists in the La Plata Basin is preferable to a grand coalition because of its higher degree of stability. Finally, given the ways in which these partial coalitions are beginning to incorporate IWRM techniques, gaining experience and international recognition, we consider whether it is likely that partial coalitions will lead to a grand coalition in the foreseeable future.      

A MODELING APPROACH FOR STORM WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTROL VIA DETENTION BASINS1

ABSTRACT: Storm water detention basins have historically been employed for quantity (i.e., flooding) control only. However, recently it has been suggested that these basins may also provide a practical means of storm water quality control. This paper presents the formulation of a mathematical modeling approach which may be used by professionals to simultaneously design detention basins for the dual purpose of storm water quantity and quality control. Model simulations demonstrate that for a given basin, pollutant removal increases as storm frequency increases. The importance of particle size distribution and settling velocity for net pollutant removal is illustrated, The design procedure is demonstrated, and pollutant loading diagrams for estimating pollutant removal as a function of storm size are developed.