Developing a National Indicator of Soil Quality on U.S Forestlands: Methods and Initial Results

The Montreal Process was formed in 1994 to develop an internationally agreed upon set of criteria and indicators for the conservation and sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. In response to this initiative, the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) and Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) programs of the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service have implemented soil measurements as part of a national monitoring program to address specific questions related to the conservation of soil and water resources. Integration of soil assessments into the national FIA program provides for systematic monitoring of soil properties across all forested regions of the U.S. using standardized collection, laboratory, and statistical procedures that are compatible with existing forest inventory data. The resulting information will provide quantitative benchmarks for regional, national, and international reporting on sustainable forest management and enhance our understanding of management effects on soil quality. This paper presents an overview of the FIA soil monitoring program, outlines the field and laboratory protocols as currently implemented, and provides examples of how these data may be used to assess indicators of sustainable management as defined by the Montreal Process.     

Forest Health Monitoring in the United States: First Four Years

To address the need for more effective methods for evaluating and assessing forest ecosystem health, the USDA-Forest Service and the US Environmental Protection Agency through its Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program developed the Forest Health Monitoring program. The program was initiated in 1990 and by 1994 was present in the major areas of the United States. This paper presents an overview of the program, the indicators and methods developed for the program, and some of the results after four years of monitoring and research.     

Forest Health Assessment and Monitoring – Issues for Consideration

Part of this paper has been prepared for the lecture Forest Health Assessment-Criteria,Methods and Problems given by the author at the UIMPuniversity course Sanidad Forestal en el Bosques Mediterraneos yTemplados. Implicacion de la Contaminacion Atmosferica y del Cambio Global, held in Valencia, Spain, October, 1995. Assessment and monitoring of forest health representsa key point for environmental policy and for the management ofenvironmental resources. With the renewed interest in assessment andmonitoring of forest health generated by the suspected occurrence ofa widespread forest decline in Europe and North America, manyactivities have been undertaken: however, some questions should beconsidered and clarified when attempting to estimate forest health.Particularly, the objective(s) of the assessment and monitoringprogram should be carefully identified. Identification of a program‘stask has a number of implications and consequences: it implies adefinition of what concept of forest health (forest ecosystem health,forest health or forest trees health?) is assumed, what will be thetarget entity to be monitored, and therefore the identification of therelevant assessment questions and assessment endpoints.Consequences concern the definition of the spatial scale (frominternational to landscape and plot scale monitoring) and ecologicalcoverage (from single species population to population ofecosystems) of the program, which can have a considerable influenceon the choice of the proper sampling strategy and tactic, as well ason the most suitable methods, indicators and indices to be used.Although much of the work in the field of forest health and airpollution has concentrated on surveys on crown transparency anddiscoloration, there is an entire range of methods, indicators andindices developed to assess the health status of forests. The decisionas to which ones should be used will depend on the aim of theprogram and on economic and practical considerations. A furtherconsideration concerns the time span of the program, but anydecision in this field is subject to many limitations due to difficultiesin predicting future monitoring needs. All these points should becarefully considered and implemented according to a rigorousQuality Assurance procedure since any decision will influence futurework for many years.     

A national ozone biomonitoring program--results from field surveys of ozone sensitive plants in northeastern forests (1994-2000)

Ozone biomonitoring is a detection and monitoring techniquethat involves documenting ozone-induced visible injury toknown ozone-sensitive species under conditions of ambientexposure. The USDA Forest Service administers a long-term,nationwide ozone biomonitoring program to address public andscientific concerns about ozone impacts on forest health. Asystematic grid is used as the basis for biomonitoring sitelocations. At each site, trained field crews evaluate amaximum of thirty plants of up to six species and record the amount and severity of leaf-injury on individualplants. Injury from ozone was found more often on biomonitoring sites in the eastern Unites States than in theinterior or west-coast areas. Further results from thenortheast reveal that in any year, there is a higherpercentage of ozone-injured plants with more severe symptomsin areas with relatively high ozone concentrations than inareas with relatively low ozone. In very dry years (e.g.,1999) the percentage of injured plants and injury severityestimates are both sharply reduced even though ambient ozoneexposures are high. These findings demonstrate thatbiomonitoring data provide meaningful evidence of when highozone concentrations during the growing season have biologicalsignificance. Any assessment of ozone stress in the forestenvironment must include both biomonitoring (i.e., plantresponse) and air quality data to be complete.     

Ambient ozone injury to forest plants in Northeast and North Central USA: 16?years of biomonitoring

The US Forest Service administers a long-term, nationwide ozone biomonitoring program in partnership with other state and federal agencies to address national concerns about ozone impacts on forest health. Biomonitoring surveys begun in 1994 in the East and 1998 in the West provide important regional information on ozone air quality and a field-based record of ozone injury unavailable from any other data source. Surveys in the Northeast and North Central subregions cover 450 field sites in 24 states where ozone-sensitive plants are evaluated for ozone-induced foliar injury every year. Sites are typically large, undisturbed openings (>3 acres in size) close to forested areas where >3 bioindicator species are available for evaluation. Over the 16-year sampling period, injury indices have fluctuated annually in response to seasonal ozone concentrations and site moisture conditions. Sites with and without injury occur at all ozone exposures but when ambient concentrations are relatively low, the percentage of uninjured sites is much greater than the percentage of injured sites; and regardless of ozone exposure, when drought conditions prevail, the percentage of uninjured sites is much greater than the percentage of injured sites. Results indicate a declining trend in foliar injury especially after 2002 when peak ozone concentrations declined across the entire region.     

Development history and bibliography of the US Forest Service crown-condition indicator for forest health monitoring

Comprehensive assessment of individual-tree crown condition by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program has its origins in the concerns about widespread forest decline in Europe and North America that developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Programs such as the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, US National Vegetation Survey, Canadian Acid Rain National Early Warning System, and joint US–Canadian North American Sugar Maple Decline Project laid the groundwork for the development of the US Forest Service crown-condition indicator. The crown-condition assessment protocols were selected and refined through literature review, peer review, and field studies in several different forest types during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 1980 and 2011, 126 publications relating specifically to the crown-condition indicator were added to the literature. The majority of the articles were published by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service or other State or Federal government agency, and more than half were published after 2004.     

A Critical Analysis of Illinois’ Fish Mercury Monitoring Program, 1974–1998

Mercury contamination in fish is a serious public health concern that contrasts with other health benefits of eating fish. Like most US states, Illinois has monitored fish mercury contamination for decades to warn the public of mercury exposure risks by consuming fish. Has this monitoring program been effective in detecting public mercury exposure risks? I analyzed fish mercury contamination data from Illinois inland lakes (1974–1998; >?2,300 samples, 18 fish species, 149 lakes) and found that: (a) sampling and analyses have been severely limited since 1985; (b) sampling effort varied widely among lakes and species, and (c) trends and spatial patterns were confused by this variability. As a result of a severely limited and nonstrategic monitoring program, public mercury exposure risks via Illinois fish consumption remain unclear, despite much effort over many years. Illinois monitors fewer fish per angler than many US states, but is not alone in this regard. Illinois should resurrect and redesign its fish contaminant monitoring program to one that strategically and systematically assesses human mercury exposure risk. Other US states and nations may also benefit from similar retrospective examinations of monitoring programs intended to protect public health.     

Design to monitor trend in abundance and presence of American beaver (Castor canadensis) at the national forest scale

Wildlife conservationists design monitoring programs to assess population dynamics, project future population states, and evaluate the impacts of management actions on populations. Because agency mandates and conservation laws call for monitoring data to elicit management responses, it is imperative to design programs that match the administrative scale for which management decisions are made. We describe a program to monitor population trends in American beaver (Castor canadensis) on the US Department of Agriculture, Black Hills National Forest (BHNF) in southwestern South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming, USA. Beaver have been designated as a management indicator species on the BHNF because of their association with riparian and aquatic habitats and its status as a keystone species. We designed our program to monitor the density of beaver food caches (abundance) within sampling units with beaver and the proportion of sampling units with beavers present at the scale of a national forest. We designated watersheds as sampling units in a stratified random sampling design that we developed based on habitat modeling results. Habitat modeling indicated that the most suitable beaver habitat was near perennial water, near aspen (Populus tremuloides) and willow (Salix spp.), and in low gradient streams at lower elevations. Results from the initial monitoring period in October 2007 allowed us to assess costs and logistical considerations, validate our habitat model, and conduct power analyses to assess whether our sampling design could detect the level of declines in beaver stated in the monitoring objectives. Beaver food caches were located in 20 of 52 sampled watersheds. Monitoring 20 to 25 watersheds with beaver should provide sufficient power to detect 15–40% declines in the beaver food cache index as well as a twofold decline in the odds of beaver being present in watersheds. Indices of abundance, such as the beaver food cache index, provide a practical measure of population status to conduct long-term monitoring across broad landscapes such as national forests.     

Canada's National Forest Inventory (Responding to Current Information Needs)

Canada's current National Forest Inventory is a periodic compilation of existing inventory material from across the country. While the current approach has many advantages, it lacks information on the nature and rate of changes to the resource, and does not permit projections or forecasts. Beinga compilation of inventories of different dates, the current national forest inventory cannot reflect the current state ofthe forests and therefore cannot be used as a satisfactory baseline for monitoring change. The current format of Canada's National Forest Inventory has served its purpose by providingnational statistical compilations and reporting. However, itsuseful life is coming to a conclusion. To meet new demands, Canada is considering a new National Forest Inventory design consisting of a plot-based system of permanent observational units located on a national grid. The objective of the new inventory design is to assess and monitor the extent, state andsustainability of Canada's forests in a timely and accurate manner. Details of the new inventory design are described. A strategy to respond to Canada's national and international forest reporting commitments through a National Forest Information System is also discussed.     

Monitoring the condition of natural resources in US national parks

The National Park Service has developed a long-term ecological monitoring program for 32 ecoregional networks containing more than 270 parks with significant natural resources. The monitoring program assists park managers in developing a broad-based understanding of the status and trends of park resources as a basis for making decisions and working with other agencies and the public for the long-term protection of park ecosystems. We found that the basic steps involved in planning and designing a long-term ecological monitoring program were the same for a range of ecological systems including coral reefs, deserts, arctic tundra, prairie grasslands, caves, and tropical rainforests. These steps involve (1) clearly defining goals and objectives, (2) compiling and summarizing existing information, (3) developing conceptual models, (4) prioritizing and selecting indicators, (5) developing an overall sampling design, (6) developing monitoring protocols, and (7) establishing data management, analysis, and reporting procedures. The broad-based, scientifically sound information obtained through this systems-based monitoring program will have multiple applications for management decision-making, research, education, and promoting public understanding of park resources. When combined with an effective education program, monitoring results can contribute not only to park issues, but also to larger quality-of-life issues that affect surrounding communities and can contribute significantly to the environmental health of the nation.     

Development of a New Approach to Cumulative Effects Assessment: A Northern River Ecosystem Example

If sustainable development of Canadian waters is to be achieved, a realistic and manageable framework is required for assessing cumulative effects. The objective of this paper is to describe an approach for aquatic cumulative effects assessment that was developed under the Northern Rivers Ecosystem Initiative. The approach is based on a review of existing monitoring practices in Canada and the presence of existing thresholds for aquatic ecosystem health assessments. It suggests that a sustainable framework is possible for cumulative effects assessment of Canadian waters that would result in integration of national indicators of aquatic health, integration of national initiatives (e.g., water quality index, environmental effects monitoring), and provide an avenue where long-term monitoring programs could be integrated with baseline and follow-up monitoring conducted under the environmental assessment process.     

Monitoring in the Tualatin River Basin to assess the effectiveness of the Oregon Forest Practicers Program: Preliminary results of phosphorus monitoring

The Oregon Department of Forestry is a designated management agency to provide a forestry program to assist in bringing the Tualatin River into complicance with pH and dissolved oxygen water quality standards. The Oregon Environmental Quality Commission set a total maximum daily load (TMDL) of 70 µg/l total phosphorus to control algae growth and meet these standards. The Department of Forestry has a basin effectiveness monitoring plan to determine that the Oregon Forest Practice Rules' BMPs are maintaining adequate control of phosphorus loadings from forest operations. Three sites monitored during May to October of 1990 were augmented by eight more sites in 1991. As laboratory methods were refined, the results became more accurate. The 1991 monitoring showed lower phosphorus levels that were consistent for each tributary. Mean total phosphorus levels ranged from 17 to 65 µg/l. Preliminary field reconnaissance suggests a correlation between phosphorus levels and underlying geology. Concentrations were lowest at sites underlain by tertiary intrusive basalts, next higher for sites with terrestrial basalt, next higher for one site with a basalt-sandstone bedrock mix, and highest for sites underlain predominately by sandstone. These results may be modified by 1992 monitoring and further analysis.     

The Contribution of Acadia PRIMENet Research to Science and Resource Management in the National Park Service

Acadia National Park was one of the 14 sites included in the Park Research and Intensive Monitoring of Ecosystems network (PRIMENet). For eight years the EPA monitored ultraviolet (UV) radiation at this site, with the National Park Service (NPS) sponsoring a total climate and air monitoring station. Under the auspices of PRIMENet, research projects were initiated that investigated the effects of UV on amphibians, determined watershed mass balances, and developed a model of deposition along an elevational gradient. The monitoring data and research results have been used by park management to protect vegetation and water resources from ozone and deposition. These data are now being used to develop a “vital signs” monitoring program under the NPS’ Inventory and Monitoring Program. These data sets have been used in regional, national and international programs to protect human health and resources from air pollution. Public outreach has been accomplished through web site resources and via the Schoodic Education and Research Center.     

A comparative assessment of land cover dynamics of three protected forest areas in tropical eastern Africa

Processes of deforestation, known to threaten tropical forest biodiversity, have not yet been studied sufficiently in East Africa. To shed light on the patterns and causes of human influences on protected forest ecosystems, comparisons of different study areas regarding land cover dynamics and potential drivers are needed. We analyze the development of land cover since the early 1970s for three protected East African rainforests and their surrounding farmlands and assess the relationship between the observed changes in the context of the protection status of the forests. Processing of Landsat satellite imagery of eight or seven time steps in regular intervals results in 12 land cover classes for the Kakamega–Nandi forests (Kenya) and Budongo Forest (Uganda) whereas ten are distinguished for Mabira Forest (Uganda). The overall classification accuracy assessed for the year 2001 or 2003 is similarly high for all three study areas (81% to 85%). The time series reveal that, despite their protection status, Kakamega–Nandi forests and Mabira Forest experienced major forest decrease, the first a continuous forest loss of 31% between 1972/1973 and 2001, the latter an abrupt loss of 24% in the late 1970s/early 1980s. For both forests, the temporally dense time series show short-term fluctuations in forest classes (e.g., areas of forest regrowth since the 1980s or exotic secondary bushland species from the 1990s onwards). Although selectively logged, Budongo Forest shows a much more stable forest cover extent. A visual overlay with population distribution for all three regions clearly indicates a relationship between forest loss and areas of high population density, suggesting population pressure as a main driver of deforestation. The revealed forest losses due to local and commercial exploitation further demonstrate that weak management impedes effective forest protection in East Africa.     

Inventory methods for trees in nonforest areas in the great plains states

The US Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program collects information on trees in areas that meet its definition of forest. However, the inventory excludes trees in areas that do not meet this definition, such as those found in urban areas, in isolated patches, in areas with sparse or predominantly herbaceous vegetation, in narrow strips (e.g., shelterbelts), or in riparian areas. In the Great Plains States, little is known about the tree resource in these noninventoried, nonforest areas, and there is a great deal of concern about the potential impact of invasive pests, such as the emerald ash borer. To address this knowledge gap, FIA’s National Inventory and Monitoring Applications Center has partnered with state cooperators and others in a project called the Great Plains Initiative to design and implement an inventory of trees in nonforest areas. The goal of the inventory is to characterize the nonforest tree resource using methods compatible with those of FIA so a holistic understanding of the resource can be obtained by integrating the two surveys. The goal of this paper is to describe the process of designing and implementing the survey, including plot and sample design, and to present some example results from a reporting tool we developed.     

Monitoring the health of a forest: A Canadian approach

In Canada, acid rain is the generic term encompassing all forms of air pollution — wet and dry deposition, gaseous pollutant concentrations, and airborne particulates. It was because these pollutants, alone or in combination, may directly or indirectly affect the heath of Canada's forests, that in 1984, the Canadian Forestry Service initiated a national forest monitoring program (Acid Rain National Early Warning System or ARNEWS).Research studies on pollutant effects of the past 15–20 years have demonstrated that it is not possible to define specific symptoms of acid rain or mixtures of pollutants on native tree species or specific responses of the forest ecosystem. Consequently, ARNEWS monitored incipient acid rain effects by determining the forest's state of health rather than by concentrating on specific pollutant responses.The detection system entails experienced insect and disease survey forest rangers assessing both specific plots and the forest as a whole for extraordinary forest damage. The techniques used include mensurational and symptomatological measurements as well as evaluation of stands for damage from natural and anthropogenic causes. Critical also to the system was the capability of the Canadian Forestry Service to support the detection system with research staff who could carry out studies to explain any abnormalities in forest condition detected during the annual surveys. The ultimate outcome of the monitoring system if unexplained forest damage is detected is a research project on possible causes.Contribution from Fourth World Wilderness Congress — Acid Rain Symposium, Denver (Estes Park), Colorado, September 11–18, 1987.     

Evaluating the utility and seasonality of NDVI values for assessing post-disturbance recovery in a subalpine forest

Forest disturbances around the world have the potential to alter forest type and cover, with impacts on diversity, carbon storage, and landscape composition. These disturbances, especially fire, are common and often large, making ground investigation of forest recovery difficult. Remote sensing offers a means to monitor forest recovery in real time, over the entire landscape. Typically, recovery monitoring via remote sensing consists of measuring vegetation indices (e.g., NDVI) or index-derived metrics, with the assumption that recovery in NDVI (for example) is a meaningful measure of ecosystem recovery. This study tests that assumption using MODIS 16-day imagery from 2000 to 2010 in the area of the Colorado’s Routt National Forest Hinman burn (2002) and seedling density counts taken in the same area. Results indicate that NDVI is rarely correlated with forest recovery, and is dominated by annual and perennial forb cover, although topography complicates analysis. Utility of NDVI as a means to delineate areas of recovery or non-recovery are in doubt, as bootstrapped analysis indicates distinguishing power only slightly better than random. NDVI in revegetation analyses should carefully consider the ecology and seasonal patterns of the system in question.     

Land district,ecophysiographic units and areas: The landscape mapping of the Ministère des Ressources naturelles du Québec

In 1985, the Ministère des Ressources naturelles established a Forest Ecological Survey Program for Southern Québec. One component of the program was the mapping of land districts, which provide a physiographically-based territorial reference system. The land districts have an average surface area of between 100 and 300 sq km. Since its inception, the department has further refined the methodologies and standardized the results. The current methodologies are based on inventory and analysis of the geographical distribution of permanent environmental components (e.g., relief, surficial deposits, geology, hydrography). The products include 1:50 000 maps of surficial deposits, 1:250 000 maps of the land districts and physiographic systems, and a computerized data bank.To date, 500 000 km square have been covered, and the estimated completion date for the work is 1999. To facilitate use of the products and to encourage the development of new applications, a guide for forest managers and other users has been recently published. The guide assists with forest management planning strategies based upon the physical environment, in particular the production and use of interpretation grids and maps. The products of the mapping process are, for many regions of Southern Québec, the only source of information on permanent environmental components.Currently, the Ministère des Ressources naturelles is planning to develop landscape maps of Southern Québec which identify ecophysiographic units (1:1 250 000) and ecophysiographic areas (1:2 500 000). These maps are based upon the integration of critical physiographic features and the synthesis of land regions.