An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster deaths

The objective of this paper is to investigate and to improve understanding of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster deaths. A standardised method of classifying flood deaths is proposed and the difficulties associated with comparing and assessing existing information on flood deaths are discussed. Thirteen flood cases from Europe and the United States, resulting in 247 flood disaster fatalities, were analysed and taken as indicative of flood disaster deaths. Approximately two-thirds of the deaths occurred through drowning. Thus, a substantial number of flood disaster fatalities are not related to drowning. Furthermore, males are highly vulnerable to dying in floods and unnecessary risk-taking behaviour contributes significantly to flood disaster deaths. Based on these results, recommendations are made to prevent loss of life in floods. To provide a more solid basis for the formulation of prevention strategies, better systematic recording of flood fatalities is suggested, especially those caused by different types of floods in all countries.     

Health and social impacts of a flood disaster: responding to needs and implications for practice

Carlisle in northwest England suffered its worse floods for more than 180 years in 2005. A study, reported here, was undertaken to assess the health and social impacts of these floods via in‐depth, taped individual and focus‐group interviews with people whose homes had been flooded and with agency workers who helped them. Respondents spoke of physical health ailments, psychological stress, water health‐and‐safety issues related to the floods, and disputes with insurance and construction companies, which they felt had caused and exacerbated psychological health problems. Support workers also suffered from psychological stress. Furthermore, it was found that people had low expectations of a flood and were not prepared. The findings are presented in five sections covering flood risk awareness, water contamination issues, physical health, mental health, and impact on frontline support workers. The discussion focuses on the implications of the findings for policy and practice vis‐à‐vis psychological health provision, contamination issues, training and support for frontline support workers, matters relating to restoration, and preparation for flooding.     

洞庭湖区退田还湖的洪水效应模拟

洞庭湖多年平均削减入湖洪峰流量约10000m3/s,这对于保护长江中下游,特别是中游地区的防洪安全十分重要.但由于泥沙的严重淤积,以及湖泊湿地被大规模垦殖,使洞庭湖的调蓄功能下降,江湖洪水威胁加剧.1998年长江流域发生特大洪涝灾害,中央及时提出了"退田还湖、平垸行洪"等长江流域洪水治理的32字指导原则,洞庭湖区是实施该原则的重点地区.应用数值模拟方法,通过建立洞庭湖与长江耦合的水动力学数值模型,针对1998年洪水,模拟研究了洞庭湖区退田还湖的洪水效应,并设计了8种方案分别进行定量评估.结果显示,退田还湖工程的实施,对降低洞庭湖区江湖洪水位,缓解江湖洪水威胁具有重要意义.     

Local perception of infrequent,extreme upland flash flooding: prisoners of experience?

The United Kingdom has experienced several exceptional summer flash floods in recent years and there is growing concern about the frequency of such events and the preparedness of the population. This paper uses a case study of the upper Ryedale flash flood (2005) and questionnaire and interview data to assess local perceptions of upland flash flooding. Experience of a major flash flood may not be associated with increased flood risk perception. Despite local residents’ awareness of a trend towards wetter summers and more frequent heavy rainfall, the poor maintenance of rivers was more frequently thought to be a more significant factor influencing local flood risk than climate change. Such findings have important implications for the potential success of contemporary national flood policies, which have put greater emphasis on public responsibility for responding to flooding. This study recommends, therefore, the use of fresh participatory approaches to redistribute and raise awareness of locally‐held flood knowledge.     

湖北省历史时期洪、旱灾害统计特征分析

基于近2000年来的历史资料,对湖北省历史时期洪、旱灾害的统计特征及其演变规律进行了分析.结果表明:湖北省历史时期的洪、旱灾害经历了"少灾时期、增多时期与多灾时期"3个阶段,灾害出现的频率和影响的范围均呈增大趋势;洪旱灾害的空间分布呈现"洪水连江,干旱依山"的特点;洪旱灾害发生的季节集中性较强,中、大区域性洪水灾害集中在6-7月的梅雨季节,具有"梅汛"的特点,而旱灾以夏旱为多、春秋旱次之,严重的旱情多具有跨季节性的特点;总的来看,历史时期的洪旱灾害系交替进行,洪灾多于并重于旱灾.     

防洪工程信赖对公众洪灾风险认知的影响——以开封沿黄地区与岳阳洞庭湖区为例

防洪工程作为人类抵御洪灾的首选手段,为人们提供了保障,但人们对其风险认知还存在一定的偏差。本文从公众层面入手,在我国历史上洪灾最严重的两大流域—长江流域和黄河流域,分别选取岳阳沿洞庭湖区和开封沿黄河地区为研究区,调查公众对当地防洪工程的信赖状况和水灾风险认知情况,回收有效样本831份。据此分析影响防洪工程信赖的因素和工程信赖对公众风险认知的影响。研究发现,公众对防洪工程的信赖度较高,区域趋同性明显;公众对工程信赖的程度,因居住地与风险源的距离、性别、年龄和家庭劳动力结构的不同而存在差异;同时,对防洪工程的过于信赖,会降低公众对洪灾的恐惧心理和警惕性,并使得公众产生消极和积极并存的应对灾害的行为倾向。洪灾多发地区应建立大型洪灾、巨灾的风险防范和洪水保险机制,完善我国的再保险制度;政府在高风险区的分区域管理过程中,应以大局为重;构建"文化自觉"的科学防灾文化观,正确引导公众认识到工程措施能力的限度,扭转在工程信赖基础上的风险认知偏差。     

黄河北干流与渭河相遇洪水分析

黄河北干流与渭河位于黄土高原，暴雨是洪水的重要成因．本文分析了近２０００年的历史资料，提出该地区的洪水具有周期性，１９世纪洪水达到高峰，２０世纪洪水规模有所降低，并分析了黄河北干流与渭河及其支流径、洛河洪水相遇问题：四河相遇的概率很小，多形成特大洪水，两河相遇是较常发生的事件，多形成中等以下洪水。三门峡水库的淤积使该地区洪水灾害加剧．同时还分析了该地区洪水对黄河下游洪水的影响。     

Emergency service response and costs in british floods

The costs of emergency response to flood disasters has received little attention. This paper presents and discusses a method for estimating the economic costs incurred through the use of the emergency services during flood events in Britain. First, a model of British emergency service response to flood events is presented. Secondly, cost evaluation principles relevant to each emergency service are discussed. Thirdly, a set of "standard" emergency service cost data are presented - these data are derived from research based upon the model of response and the evaluation principles. Finally, the "standard" data are applied to the case of the York and Selby floods of 1982 where data from research on the reported actions and costs of each emergency service are compared with those predicted through the use of the "standard" data.     

江苏省典型年梅雨洪涝灾害对比分析

梅雨期降水形成的洪涝和枯梅年产生的干旱是江苏省主要的气象灾害.为了能客观地划分各年梅雨的旱涝等级,从而为防灾减灾决策提供依据,利用江苏省近50年来的梅雨资料,考虑梅期持时长短、梅期平均日雨量及暴雨日数等3个因子,给出了梅雨强度计算模型及梅期旱涝指标,较好地反映了江苏省每年各地的梅期旱涝状况.结合实际灾情,确定了典型梅雨洪涝年的标准.针对1954,1991和2003年3个比较典型的梅雨洪涝年,进行了详细的比较分析,结果表明:(1)长江及淮河流域上游的客水、入梅之前的降水量和梅期降水会直接影响该省梅雨期的洪涝灾情;(2)1991年的洪涝是历年来最为严重的,1954年的洪涝稍重于2003年;(3)3个典型梅雨洪涝年中全省最涝的地区都位于沿淮地区或江淮之间地区的北部,淮北地区这3年中都出现了较重的涝灾,淮北南部的灾情重于北部.     

基于GIS的长江中下游地区洪灾风险分区及评价

国内外近几年的发展表明,在所有可能避免和减轻自然灾害的措施中,最简单有效的方法就是通过在科学研究基础上进行风险区划,将自然灾害管理提高到风险管理的水平.在长江流域数字化地图的基础上,选取不同重复期(20,50,100年),及包括1870年历史洪水和1931,1935,1954,1991,1995,1996,1998,1999和2002年共10次洪水,借助Arcview地理信息系统的空间分析和叠加功能,对长江中下游地区的洪水灾害危险性进行了初步评价.首先参考洪水灾害淹没图和相关历史文献记录资料,构建10次洪水受灾县(市)分布图;其次对这10次洪水受灾县(市)分布图进行叠加,得到长江中下游地区洪涝灾害风险性评价图.分析表明:长江中下游地区洪水风险的分布是有规律的,而且具有明显的地理意义.有4个明显的高危风险区,分别是洞庭湖、鄱阳湖两湖平原的湖滨地区和公安以下的长江中游河段的沿江一带,尤其是荆江河段以及两江相夹地势低洼的江汉平原;沿高危风险区外侧为高风险地区,重点在汉江下游、资、沅、澧水、清江流域、皖沿江地区以及太湖流域的部分地区;沿长江于高危风险和高风险地区两侧分别为风险较小地区;其他地区对于洪水灾害而言则为安全地区.评价结果与长江中下游的实际情况基本吻合.     

嘉陵江流域洪水等级的建议划分标准

根据洪水重现期可以将洪水划分为12个等级,也可根据年最大流量距平值将洪水中长期定性预报分成7个等级.探讨了嘉陵江流域的洪水等级和中长期预报定性分级标准,还对嘉陵江流域1981年7月发生的洪水等级进行了分析.     

渭、洛河下游“92·8”洪灾浅析

渭、洛河下游受三门峡水库回水淹没及影响,洪灾频繁。本文依据1902年8月惨重洪灾的实例,全面分析了洪水的特殊性和致灾因素,并从流域治理、水库水沙调度、防洪工程建设等方面提出了进一步减灾的措施。     

1998年长江流域暴雨洪水环流背景分析

１９９８年主汛期,由于西太平洋副热带持续偏南、偏强,中高纬度维持稳定的阻塞形势,６、７月雨带长期在鄱阳湖、没庭湖地区徘徊,造成长江中下游地区严重洪涝;８月随着副高北抬,长江上游出现多次强降水过程,长江干流受中下游洪水顶主上游洪峰下泻的影响,水位居高不下,多数水文站出现了超记录的历史最高水位。１９９８年的已成为一次少有的新的长江大洪水的典型。     

暴雨洪涝敏感性影响因子分析及评估--以江西安义县为例

由于区域地理环境存在差异,洪涝敏感性影响因子的选取主要根据区域地理特征及个人经验确定,缺乏统一的标准、系统的分析和科学的评价。洪涝灾害与影响因子之间是复杂的、多变量的非线性关系,与研究区的地质、地貌、土地覆盖等诸多因素密切相关。针对不同的研究区域,搜集尽可能全面的影响因子并对其进行优化选取是实现洪涝敏感性准确评估的前提和保证。南昌市安义县位于潦河中下游,是洪涝灾害的主要受灾区域。基于遥感影像数据和地理信息系统技术,以安义县为例开展暴雨洪涝敏感性影响因子分析及评估研究。首先,利用成灾前后哨兵一号雷达影像提取安义县2016年6月30日至7月5日暴雨洪涝的淹没范围,选取高程、降水、用地类型、距河流距离、坡度等15个洪涝敏感性影响因子。然后,基于随机森林模型对15个影响因子进行重要性排序,按照排序结果对影响因子逐步精简,并基于神经网络模型对影响因子进行优化选取。最后,基于优化选取后的影响因子,采用神经网络模型进行安义县洪涝敏感性评估,并用实例验证洪涝敏感性评估结果的可靠性。研究结果表明,在精简收敛指数、坡向、剖面曲率、地形位置指数和汇流动力指数5个最不重要的影响因子后,神经网络模型的性能有一定提升;敏感性等级为中等及中等以上区域主要分布在潦河两岸,约占安义县总面积的1/3,近70%的洪涝分布在敏感性中等及中等以上区域,洪涝发生在洪涝敏感性等级为中等及中等以上区域的可能性非常大,洪涝敏感性评估结果与安义县实际情况相符。     

陕西省2003年夏秋季异常气候特征及成因分析

2003年夏秋季,陕西省降水异常偏多,暴雨洪涝、地质灾害严重;光热条件差;入秋后出现了近十几年来罕见的强秋淋天气;8月下旬至10月上旬,渭河下游先后5次出现洪峰.本文分析和探讨了2003年夏秋季的异常气候特征及其成因.     

广西沿江重镇洪灾特点及减灾对策

阐述了广西沿江重镇洪灾的主要特点：暴雨强度大、洪水灾发性强、抗灾能力低，探讨了致灾的成因；指出了防洪减灾的主要对策是强调工程与非工程防洪措施相结合，建立全流域综合防洪体系及根据各城市的具体情况采取针对性的措施。     

海河流域近500年大旱大涝时空特征及趋势预测

作者选择记录年代较长、系统性较好、分布均匀的十八个站作为海河流域的代表站，分别统计了近５００年及每世纪、各年代大旱大涝的出现频数，探讨了它的时空分布特征。还根据天文、气候背景制作了１９９５～２０１０年旱涝趋势预测。研究表明，１９９５～２０１０年海河流域大致处于太阳活动２３周的黑子低值位相和第２４周的高值位相之间，同时又处在太阳黑子世纪周期的下降段。从全国旱涝型指数和北京地区旱涝等级变化曲线看，目前海河流域正处于持续下降期，未来将进入湿润多雨阶段     

Flood proneness and coping strategies: the experiences of two villages in Bangladesh

This paper explores peoples' indigenous survival strategies and assesses variations in people's ability to cope with floods in two flood‐prone villages in Bangladesh. It reveals that people continuously battle against flood vulnerability in accordance with their level of exposure and abilities, with varied strategies employed at different geophysical locations. The paper reports that people in an area with low flooding and with better socioeconomic circumstances are more likely to cope with impacts compared to people in areas with high and sudden flooding. Similarly, households' ability to cope varies depending on people's socioeconomic conditions, such as education, income and occupation. Although floods in Bangladesh generate socioeconomic misery and cause damage to the environment, health and infrastructure, people's indigenous coping strategies have helped them to reduce significantly their vulnerability. Such flood‐mitigating strategies should be well recognised and emphasised further via proper dissemination of information through an early‐warning system and subsequently external assistance.     

Environmental knowledge and human experience: using a historical analysis of flooding in Ireland to challenge contemporary risk narratives and develop creative policy alternatives

Focusing on three of the largest coastal cities in the Republic of Ireland, this paper highlights the importance of a historical analysis of flood hazards in contextualising current events and potential future risks. Over the last decade, the cities of Dublin, Cork and Galway have experienced several major coastal, river and pluvial floods. In the aftermath of these floods, two distinct but related narratives have dominated public discourse and official responses. The first narrative presents recent floods as unprecedented and as possible evidence of climate change. The second constructs floods primarily as natural events and assumes that the optimal means of reducing flood losses is to prevent flood events. In this paper, I suggest that these narratives are not supported by a historical analysis of exposure and vulnerability to flood hazards in Irish cities. This paper draws primarily on newspaper archives to construct a record of past flooding that challenges these narratives in several ways and in doing so offers lessons for similar cities in other countries. I contend that these narratives are perpetuated by a narrow form of knowledge production (quantitative risk assessment) and a narrow range of data (numeric instrumental records). Incorporating a broader range of sources and data types into risk and vulnerability assessments may illuminate more creative strategies for reducing both contemporary and future flood losses.     

Institutional Arrangements for Flood Hazards in Malaysia: An Evaluation Using the Criteria Approach

Institutional aspects of flood hazards significantly affect their outcomes in Malaysia. Institutional arrangements to deal with floods include: legislative activity, organisational structures, attitudes and sub-culture, and policies and instruments. When assessed in terms of four specific criteria, institutional aspects of flood hazards are found to be largely inadequate. Disaster reduction programmes are over-dependent on a reactive approach based largely on technology and not even aimed at floods specifically. Structual flood reduction measures are the predominant management tool and, although the importance of non-structural measures is recognised, thus far they have been under-employed. Current laws and regulations with regard to flood management are also insufficient and both the financial and human resources of flood hazard organisations are generally found to be wanting. Finally, economic efficiency, equity and public accountability issues are not adequately addressed by institutional arrangements for flood hazards.