Manufacturing actor’s LCA

Modern industrial environmental management encompasses life-cycle thinking. This entails considering not only the emissions and resource use of the company’s production processes, but also the environmental consequences of all processes related to a product’s life cycle. However, no single actor can influence the whole life cycle of a product. To be effective, analysis methods intended to support improvement actions should therefore also consider the decision makers’ power to influence.Regarding the life cycle of a product, there are at least as many perspectives on life-cycle thinking as there are actors. This paper presents an approach with which manufacturing decision makers can sharpen the focus in life-cycle assessment (LCA) from a conventional ‘products or services’ emphasis to a company’s manufacturing processes. The method has been developed by combining knowledge gained from earlier LCA studies with new empirical findings from an LCA study of an SKF manufacturing line.We demonstrate how system boundaries and functional units in an LCA can be defined when adding the perspective of a manufacturing decision maker to the product life-cycle perspective. Such analysis helps manufacturing decision makers identify improvement potentials in their spheres of influence, by focusing on the environmental consequences of energy and material losses in manufacturing rather than merely accounting for the contributions of individual stages of the life cycle to the overall environmental impact. The method identifies and directly relates the environmental consequences of emissions or raw material inputs in the product life cycle to manufacturing processes. In doing so, the holistic systems perspective in LCA is somewhat diminished in favor of the relevance of results to manufacturing decision makers.     

Life Cycle Assessment of fossil energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Chinese pear production

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was performed to analyze environmental consequences of different pear production chains in terms of fossil energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in China. The assessment identified hotspots that contributed significantly to the environmental impacts of pear production from the cradle to the point of sale. The results showed that GHG emissions and fossil energy use varied in the different production chains because the environmental performance does not associate with the farming systems (i.e. organic vs. conventional), but is co-determined by farm topography and thus machinery use, by market demands to seasonality of products and thus the need for storage, and by local farming practices including manure management. The LCA could be used as a tool to guide selections of agricultural inputs with the aim of reducing environmental impacts. The results of the LCA analysis indicate that a list of choices are available to reduce energy use and GHG emission in the pear production chain, namely substitution of the traditional storage systems by an efficiently controlled atmosphere storage system, using manure for biogas production, conversion from the conventional farming to organic farming, and reduction of mechanical cultivation.     

The energy consumption and environmental impacts of a color TV set in China

The present study analyses the different processes followed during color TV set production along with the energy consumption and the environment emissions in each stage. The purpose is to identify “hot-spots”, i.e. parts of the life cycle important to the total environmental impact. The analysis is performed using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, which is a method used to identify and quantify in the environmental performance of a process or a product from “cradle to grave”. LCA methodology provides a quantitative basis for assessing potential improvements in the environmental performance of a system throughout the life cycle. The system investigated includes the production of manufacturing materials, transport of manufacturing materials, color TV set manufacturing, transport of color TV sets, use of color TV sets, discarding color TV sets and partial plastic waste energy utilization. The environmental burdens that arise from color TV sets are mainly due to air emissions derived from fossil fuel utilization.     

生态标志和产品的生命周期评价

获得生态标志，是对产品环境性能的肯定，表明其整个生命周期的环境性能达到了特定的要求，消费者也可直接根据生态标志图案购得自己喜好的环境友好产品，生命周期评价是一中评价产品，工艺或活动从原料采掘到生产、运输、分销、使用，回用，维护，循环和最终处置的整个生命周期阶段相关环境负荷的过程，大多数生态标志标准的确定都采用了生命周期的评价的方法，文章对生态标志的概念、发展状况、标准的确定性和生命周期评价等作了简     

Positive and negative feedback in consequential life-cycle assessment

In this paper we develop a typology of consequences that can be used for environmental assessments of investment in technologies. As an illustration we estimate how the inclusion of different cause–effect chains could affect the estimated greenhouse gas emissions resulting from buying and using a fuel cell bus today. In contrast to earlier studies, we include cause–effect chains containing positive feedback from adoption (e.g. economies of scale and learning). We discuss how our findings affect the usefulness and limitations of consequential life-cycle assessment (LCA) and how LCA methodology in more general can be used to support strategic technology choice. A major conclusion is that environmental assessments of investment in emerging technologies should not only include effects resulting from marginal change of the current system but also marginal contributions to radical system change.     

Improving the environmental performance of the fishing fleet by use of Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

This article introduces Quality Function Deployment (QFD) as a method for improving the environmental performance of the Norwegian fishing fleet. Systems engineering has been introduced as a feasible process for handling sustainability issues in the fisheries, because it contains methods for general system design, operation, and support in a life-cycle perspective. QFD is related to systems engineering as a method for translating stakeholder needs into detailed system requirements at each life-cycle stage. Eco-QFD extends the scope of QFD, and combines QFD, Life-Cycle Cost (LCC), and Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) to evaluate environmental effects and costs in the system development process. The article assesses the usefulness of Eco-QFD in fisheries management decision-making regarding sustainability in the fishing fleet, and for shipyards in their design of fishing vessels. It is concluded that Eco-QFD may be difficult to use for fisheries management in its present form, due to the complexity of sustainability, and the time and efforts demanded to carry out the analyses. Nevertheless, the structuring of the stakeholder needs and requirements may contribute to improved understanding of the decision-situation.     

Economic-balance hybrid LCA extended with uncertainty analysis: case study of a laptop computer

The emergence of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) on the global stage as a design and policy tool increases the importance of assessing and managing uncertainty. This article develops and implements uncertainty methods for hybrid LCA. Hybrid LCA combines a bottom-up construction of the supply-chain based on facility-level data on material/energy use with a top-down economic input-output (EIO) model to account for processes for which direct data were unavailable. For the bottom-up part of the LCA, we account for variability in process and usage pattern data by developing parameter ranges. For the EIO side we develop a method to assess price uncertainty. These methods are explored through a case study examining energy use and carbon dioxide emissions of manufacturing and use of a laptop computer, a 2001 Dell Inspiron 2500. Results show that manufacturing the computer requires 3010-4340 MJ of primary energy, 52-67% less than the energy to make a desktop computer, and emits 227-270 kg CO₂. The manufacturing phase represents 62-70% of total primary energy of manufacturing and operation. This indicates, as for desktop computers, that mitigating manufacturing energy use, for example through extending lifespan, can be an important strategy to manage the life cycle energy of laptop computers. Results also indicate that truncation error from excluded processes in the bottom-up process model is significant, perhaps particularly so due to complex supply chains of information technology products.     

A comparative study on milk packaging using life cycle assessment: from PA-PE-Al laminate and polyethylene in China

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was used to compare the environmental impacts in the life cycle of two milk packaging systems, PA-PE-Al laminate—a laminated foil made from paper, polyethylene and aluminum foil—and polyethylene. The data for the mass, energy fluxes and environmental emissions were obtained from published literature and from site investigations, for the two systems being analyzed for environmental impacts. The application of LCA using Eco-Indicator 99 has made the comparison of the environmental impacts of the two milk packages possible. The results of this LCA study are discussed and the results reveal that the composite packaging has a slightly higher environmental impact than the plastic one. In addition, the environmental impact of raw material extraction is the highest in all of the life cycle stages except for disposal. The environmental impact of composite packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels, land use and respiratory inorganics categories, while the plastic packaging mainly comes from the fossil fuels category. However, the composite packaging has a greater environmental impact because it has not been well recycled and reused. This environmental impact could be decreased by developing the technology to separate out polyethylene and aluminum from the packaging.     

污水处理厂环境影响的生命周期分析

生命周期分析技术除了强调污水处理工艺对于污水处理以及污泥的处理和处置必须具有令人满意的功能以外，还强调它们产生的其他方面的重要环境影响，涉及污水厂的能源管理，污水厂的设计，原材料管理以及有关污水厂的总体环境政策。每一种污水处理工艺在净化污水的同时，在其他 施工建设，生产运行和报废拆毁的三个阶段中均存在能源的使用以及污染物的排放问题。     

Transport of fish from Norway: energy analysis using industrial ecology as the framework

In this article, industrial ecology is used as a framework for analysing transport energy and its implication for products. The importance of the energy use for transport in a natural resource production system is analysed. By using fish as a case study, it is shown that the amount of energy for transport is highly dependent on the transport mode used. When applying industrial ecology principles for making assessments of the environmental impacts of products, the whole product chain is examined. This is an extended life-cycle approach, which also includes the transport of the finished products from the exporter to the importing country. This last part of the transport chain can be extremely energy demanding, as is shown for the case of fish transport. This finding has implications for the products, and for the form in which the products should be transported. Increasing the energy efficiency of production systems is an important industrial ecology principle, and must be taken into consideration when analysing product chains. A revision of today's practice of transporting large quantities of fresh whole fish by transcontinental airliners is bound to be necessary. This is a consequence of the demands for increased energy efficiency of tomorrow's industrial production systems.     

The recycling of plastic wastes from discarded TV sets: comparing energy recovery with mechanical recycling in the context of life cycle assessment

Two treatment options, i.e. energy recovery and mechanical recycling of plastic wastes from discarded TV sets, were compared in the context of life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. An estimate for the environmental burden of each option was calculated as the sum of the depletion of abiotic resources (ADP), the global warming potential (GWP), the acidification potential (AP), the photo-oxidant formation potential (POCP), the eutrophication potential (EP), and the human toxicity potential (HTP). After calculating the environmental burden of each treatment option, a sensitivity analysis was conducted. The ultimate aim was to indicate which parameters of the system have the strongest influence on the results of the LCA in order to find ways for lowering the environmental burden, and ultimately suggest a “design strategy” for TV sets.The main finding of this study was that mechanical recycling of plastics is more attractive treatment option in environmental terms than incineration for energy recovery, which generates a larger environmental burden. Finally, based on the results of sensitivity analysis, a “design strategy” was suggested, i.e. reducing the number of plastic types being used in the manufacturing process of TVs – preferably excluding the PVC.     

Assessing alternative aquaculture technologies: life cycle assessment of salmonid culture systems in Canada

This study employed life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify and compare the potential environmental impacts of culturing salmonids in a conventional marine net-pen system with those of three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Results of the study indicate that while the use of these closed-containment systems may reduce the local ecological impacts typically associated with net-pen salmon farming, the increase in material and energy demands associated with their use may result in significantly increased contributions to several environmental impacts of global concern, including global warming, non-renewable resource depletion, and acidification. It is recommended that these unanticipated impacts be carefully considered in further assessments of the sustainability of closed-containment systems and in ongoing efforts to develop and employ these technologies on a larger scale.     

An inventory analysis of oil shale energy produced on a small thermal power plant

Energy produced in Estonia from oil shale is studied using the inventory analysis of the product life cycle assessment (LCA) method. The life cycle is taken as an oil shale mine and thermal power plant with consumer supply systems, which are close to each other and are technologically interconnected.The effectiveness of energy production over the whole life cycle is calculated and the energy and the material balances are presented. Local environmental effects of the oil shale extraction and the energy production are briefly described.The first step in defining the oil shale energy as an important input parameter for the LCA studies of all other products of Estonia is made. The collected data can serve as a basis for the environmental improvement programs.     

A combined tool for environmental scientists and decision makers: ternary diagrams and emergy accounting

Ternary diagrams are presented as graphic tools to assist environmental accounting and environmental decision-making based on emergy analysis [Odum HT. Environmental accounting – emergy environmental decision making. John Wiley & Sons; 1996. 370 pp. [1]]. Beyond the unquestionable advantages of graphic interpretation over table analysis, the use of ternary diagrams or phase diagrams, widely used for physical chemistry evaluation of three component systems, permits the use of phase diagram properties to assess the dependence of the system upon renewable and non-renewable inputs, the environmental support for dilution and abatement of process emissions and the system efficiency. The prompt visualization of the emergy accounting data makes possible to compare processes and systems with and without ecosystem services, to evaluate improvements and to follow the system performance over time. With the aim of ternary diagrams, aspects such as the interaction between systems and the interactions between systems and the environment can be readily recognized and evaluated.     

Screening life cycle assessment (LCA) of tomato ketchup: a case study

A screening life cycle assessment (LCA) of tomato ketchup has been carried out. The purpose was to identify ‘hot-spots', that is parts of the life-cycle that are important to the total environmental impact. The system investigated includes agricultural production, industrial refining, packaging, transportation, consumption and waste management. Energy use and emissions were quantified and some of the potential environmental effects assessed. Packaging and food processing were found to be hot-spots for many, but not all, of the impact categories investigated. For primary energy use, the storage time in a refrigerator (household phase) was found to be a critical parameter.     

Development and environmental improvements of plastics for hydrophilic catheters in medical care: an environmental evaluation

Single-use medical devices have been under close scrutiny for several years, especially the choice of plastic materials. Many different requirements such as medical safety, treatment functionality and efficiency, environmental performance, etc. have to be fulfilled. Today, the most commonly used materials for hydrophilic urinary catheters are polyvinylchloride (PVC) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). In this research study, these two materials' environmental performance was evaluated. In light of the knowledge gained in that study a new plastic material for use in urinary catheters was developed. The aim of the development of this new material was to design a high performance material with superior environmental performance. The newly developed plastic material is a polyolefin-based elastomer. The ecological environmental performance of the new material was evaluated and compared to the existing plastic materials. The study focused exclusively on the choice of plastic materials and their ecological environmental performance.The analysis has been performed using a system perspective and a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The functional unit has been set to the treatment of one patient during one year. The results from the LCA models have been presented both in terms of direct inventory data, such as energy use and formed emissions, and in terms of the results from four different impact assessment methods. Analysis of the results based on direct inventory data, i.e. common inventory results such as energy resource uses and emissions of CO₂, NO_x and SO₂ show an overall better environmental performance for the new polyolefin-based elastomer compared to the existing PVC and TPU plastic materials. The normalization and weighting steps in the analyzes have indicated the importance of energy resource uses and global warming as indicator for the environmental performance even if other impact categories also can play a role. In the environmental impact assessment, the polyolefin-based elastomer showed a clearly better environmental performance than the TPU material. Compared to PVC plastic material the new polyolefin-based elastomer showed an almost equivalent environmental performance. This can be mainly explained by the different materials' energy use. The new material has thus also shown to be an environmentally good alternative to PVC if a PVC-free material is requested. Basing the plastic formula, on simple bulk plastics with low energy use in the production of single-use medical devices, has been shown to be a successful method of producing high quality products with superior environmental performance.     

Improving the environmental performance of machine-tools: influence of technology and throughput on the electrical energy consumption of a press-brake

Machine-tools have been identified as one of the main energy-using products to be analyzed in an Ecodesign perspective, targeting the reduction of their environmental impact. Following this, machine-tool manufacturers are committed to anticipate eminent regulations and are looking for guidelines to improve their products on an effective and low-cost manner. This paper describes part of the energy consumption study followed in the frame of the Ecodesign of a commercial press-brake. All-hydraulic and all-electric commercially available systems, of different capacities and working in real production scenarios, have been included. From this study, a preliminary version of an LCI dataset for the bending process is proposed, structured in technology, machine capacity and usage mode categories, and using the bending cycle as the reference unit. The energy consumption per category was estimated based on a specific process energy model built as a function of the referred parameters. The contribution of the respective machine-tool structure to the environmental impact of the machining process is to be included, targeting the completion of such machining unit process dataset. The full LCA of an all-hydraulic system revealed the significant contribution of the machine-tool structure to the global life-cycle environmental impact of the machine (about 40%), while electricity during use phase contributes with about 46% to the total impact. This contradicts the general results published for other metal and non-metal forming processes, and is understood to be related with the discrete loading character of such forming processes here discussed.     

Material flows and environmental impacts of manufacturing systems via aggregated input–output models

Manufacturing processes may be viewed as operational units in the overall manufacturing/production system. Changes in technology, production patterns, and process settings are typically made at the process (unit) level. Very often, environmental problems are apparent when the manufacturing/production system is viewed as a whole (many units joined together). However, with the units aggregated to form a system, it is often difficult to identify the source of an environmental problem or judge the singular effect of changes to a process unit; the changes become lost in the complexity of the system as a whole. Recent efforts have employed input–output modeling to describe the flow of materials and the environmental consequences associated with manufacturing processes. A method is introduced for aggregating process-level material input–output models to form a combined material input–output model for a manufacturing system. The resulting model serves as a bridge between unit-level changes and broader system behaviors. The model form permits identification of opportunities for reducing environmental impacts at the process level (e.g., reduction of emissions, waste generation, and material use) and driving the system toward zero emissions based on an examination of the aggregated manufacturing system level model. Case studies are used to illustrate the application of the aggregated material input–output model to minimize waste and resource consumptions.     

Environmental life-cycle impacts of CRT and LCD desktop computer displays

Final impact results from an industry-wide environmental life-cycle assessment of cathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display (LCD) computer monitors are presented for 20 environmental impact categories. Considering the entire life cycle of each monitor, water eutrophication and aquatic ecotoxicity impacts for the baseline analysis were greater for the LCD while all other impact categories (e.g., resource use, energy, ozone depletion, landfill space use, human health toxicity) were greater for the CRT. Energy inputs from CRT glass manufacturing, for which there was some uncertainty in the data, drive many of the CRT impacts. Modifying the glass energy data based on comparison to secondary data resulted in nine of the 20 impact categories having greater relative life-cycle impacts for the LCD than the CRT. When comparing the manufacturing stages of each monitor type in the baseline scenario, the LCD has greater relative burdens on the environment in eight categories. Energy, global warming, and human health toxicity impacts are also presented in greater detail, showing contributions from each life-cycle stage. This study's results can allow industry to focus on frit manufacturing, PWB manufacturingimprovements can be made.     

Assessment of the environmental impact of carnivorous finfish production systems using life cycle assessment

When evaluating the environmental impacts of finfish production systems, both regional impacts (e.g., eutrophication) and global impacts (e.g., climate change) should be taken into account. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method is well suited for this purpose. Three fish farms that represent contrasting intensive production systems were investigated using LCA: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in freshwater raceways in France, sea-bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in sea cages in Greece, and turbot (Scophtalmus maximus) in an inland re-circulating system close to the seashore in France. Two main characteristics differentiated the three farm systems: feed use and energy use. Emission of nitrogen and phosphorus accounted for more than 90% of each farm's potential eutrophication impact. In the trout and sea-bass systems, feed production was the major contributor to potential climate change and acidification impacts and net primary production use (NPPU). In these systems, the main source of variation for environmental impacts was the feed conversion ratio. Results from this study indicate that the sea-bass cage system was less efficient than the trout raceway system, with a higher level of potential eutrophication (65% greater) and NPPU (15% greater). The turbot re-circulating system was a high energy-consumer compared to the trout raceway system (four times higher) and the sea-bass cage system (five times higher). Potential climate change and acidification impacts were largely influenced by energy consumption in the turbot re-circulating system. In the turbot re-circulating system 86% of energy use was due to on-site consumption, while in the sea-bass cage farming system 72% of energy use was due to feed production. These results are discussed in relation to regional contexts of production and focus attention on the sensitivity of each aquatic environment and the use of energy carriers.