Evaluating the emission status of light-duty gasoline vehicles and motorcycles in Macao with real-world remote sensing measurement

Roadside remote sensing measurement was used to explore the real-world emission status of light duty gasoline vehicles （LDGVs） and motorcycles in Macao. Both fuel-based and distance-based emission factors were derived using the mass balance method. The emission concentration profile of LDGVs illustrated the benefits of tightening emission standards at the source country or region of import. The distance-based emission factors for CO, HC and NOx of LDGVs registered before 2000 were 8.00, 1.04 and 1.36 g/km, respectively. The distance-based emission factors for CO, HC and NOx of LDGVs registered in or after 2000 were 1.16, 0.15 and 0.18 g/km, respectively. The fuel-based CO emission factors of light duty motorcycles （LDMCs） and heavy duty motorcycles （HDMCs） registered before 2000 were about 10 times higher than those of LDGVs of the same age group. As the emissions of LDGVs decreased more quickly after 2000, the gap widens for newer vehicles. The distance-based HC emission factors of LDMCs and HDMCs registered before 2000 were 4.81 and 2.91 g/km, respectively. The distance-based HC emission factors of LDMCs and HDMCs registered in or after 2000 were 3.52 and 0.93 g/km, respectively. The poor emission performance of motorcycles and their larger share in the traffic flow will cause them to be the major contributor to traffic CO and HC emissions. LDMCs, especially two-stroke models, should be the priority for vehicle emission control efforts in Macao.     

Carbonyl emissions from heavy-duty diesel vehicle exhaust in China and the contribution to ozone formation potential

Fifteen heavy-duty diesel vehicles were tested on chassis dynamometer by using typical heavy duty driving cycle and fuel economy cycle. The air from the exhaust was sampled by 2,4- dinitrophenyhydrazine cartridge and 23 carbonyl compounds were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. The average emission factor of carbonyls was 97.2 mg/km, higher than that of light-duty diesel vehicles and gasoline-powered vehicles. Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone and propionaidehyde were the species with the highest emission factors. Main influencing factors for carbonyl emissions were vehicle type, average speed and regulated emission standard, and the impact of vehicle loading was not evident in this study. National emission of carbonyls from diesel vehicles exhaust was calculated for China, 2011, based on both vehicle miles traveled and fuel consumption. Carbonyl emission of diesel vehicle was estimated to be 45.8 Gg, and was comparable to gasolinepowered vehicles （58.4 Gg）. The emissions of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone were 12.6, 6.9, 3.8 Gg, respectively. The ozone formation potential of carbonyls from diesel vehicles exhaust was 537 mg O3/km, higher than 497 mg O3/km of none-methane hydrocarbons emitted from diesel vehicles.     

On-board measurement of emissions from liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline and diesel powered passenger cars in Algeria

On-board measurements of unit emissions of CO,HC,NOx and CO2 were conducted on 17 private cars powered by different types of fuels including gasoline,dual gasoline–liquefied petroleum gas(LPG),gasoline,and diesel. The tests performed revealed the effect of LPG injection technology on unit emissions and made it possible to compare the measured emissions to the European Artemis emission model. A sequential multipoint injection LPG kit with no catalyst installed was found to be the most efficient pollutant reduction device for all of the pollutants,with the exception of the NOx. Specific test results for a sub-group of LPG vehicles revealed that LPG-fueled engines with no catalyst cannot compete with catalyzed gasoline and diesel engines. Vehicle age does not appear to be a determining parameter with regard to vehicle pollutant emissions. A fuel switch to LPG offers many advantages as far as pollutant emissions are concerned,due to LPG's intrinsic characteristics.However,these advantages are being rapidly offset by the strong development of both gasoline and diesel engine technologies and catalyst converters. The LPG's performance on a chassis dynamometer under real driving conditions was better than expected. The enforcement of pollutant emission standards in developing countries is an important step towards introducing clean technology and reducing vehicle emissions.     

Data quality evaluation and calibration of on-road remote sensing systems based on exhaust plumes

In recent years, with rapid increases in the number of vehicles in China, the contribution of vehicle exhaust emissions to air pollution has become increasingly prominent. To achieve the precise control of emissions, on-road remote sensing (RS) technology has been developed and applied for law enforcement and supervision. However, data quality is still an existing issue affecting the development and application of RS. In this study, the RS data from a cross-road RS system used at a single site (from 2012 to 2015) were collected, the data screening process was reviewed, the issues with data quality were summarized, a new method of data screening and calibration was proposed, and the effectiveness of the improved data quality control methods was finally evaluated. The results showed that this method reduces the skewness and kurtosis of the data distribution by up to nearly 67%, which restores the actual characteristics of exhaust diffusion and is conducive to the identification of actual clean and high-emission vehicles. The annual variability of emission factors of nitric oxide decreases by 60% – on average – eliminating the annual drift of fleet emissions and improving data reliability.     

Tailpipe emission characterizations of diesel-fueled forklifts under real-world operations using a portable emission measurement system

Non-road equipment is one of the key contributing sources to air pollution. Thus, an accurate development of emission inventory from non-road equipment is imperative for air quality management, especially for equipment with a large population such as diesel-fueled forklifts. The objective of this paper is to characterize duty-cycle based emissions from diesel-fueled forklifts using a portable emission measurement system (PEMS). Three duty-cycles were defined in this study, including idling, moving, and working (active duty operation) and used to characterize in-use emissions for diesel-fueled forklifts. A total of twelve diesel-fueled forklifts were selected for real-world emission measurements. Results showed that fuel-based emission factors appear to have smaller variability compared to time-based ones. For example, the time-based emission factors for CO, HC, NO, and PM_2.5 for forklifts were estimated to be 16.6–43.9, 5.3–15.1, 26.2–49.9, 5.5–11.1 g/hr with the fuel-based emission factors being 12.1–20.3, 4.1–8.3, 19.1–32.4, 3.5–6.5 g/kg-fuel, respectively. NO emissions appear to be the biggest concern for emissions control. Furthermore, most of the emissions factors estimated from this study are significantly different from those in both National Guideline for Emission Inventory Development for Non-Road Equipment in China and well-developed emission factor models such as NONROAD by US EPA. This implies that localized, preferably fuel-based emission factors should be adjusted based on real-world emission measurements in order to develop a representative emission inventory for non-road equipment.     

Development of database of real-world diesel vehicle emission factors for China

A database of real-world diesel vehicle emission factors, based on type and technology, has been developed following tests on more than 300 diesel vehicles in China using a portable emission measurement system. The database provides better understanding of diesel vehicle emissions under actual driving conditions. We found that although new regulations have reduced real-world emission levels of diesel trucks and buses significantly for most pollutants in China,NO_x emissions have been inadequately controlled by the current standards, especially for diesel buses, because of bad driving conditions in the real world. We also compared the emission factors in the database with those calculated by emission factor models and used in inventory studies. The emission factors derived from COPERT (Computer Programmer to calculate Emissions from Road Transport) and MOBILE may both underestimate real emission factors, whereas the updated COPERT and PART5 (Highway Vehicle Particulate Emission Modeling Software) models may overestimate emission factors in China. Real-world measurement results and emission factors used in recent emission inventory studies are inconsistent, which has led to inaccurate estimates of emissions from diesel trucks and buses over recent years. This suggests that emission factors derived from European or US-basedmodels will not truly represent real-world emissions in China. Therefore, it is useful and necessary to conduct systematic real-world measurements of vehicle emissions in China in order to obtain the optimum inputs for emission inventory models.     

Vehicular emissions in China in 2006 and 2010

Vehicular emissions in China in 2006 and 2010 were calculated at a high spatial resolution based on the data released by the National Bureau of Statistics, by taking the emission standards into consideration. China's vehicular emissions of carbon monoxide(CO),nitrogen oxides(NO_x), volatile organic compounds(VOCs), ammonia(NH_3), fine particulate matters(PM_(2.5)), inhalable particulate matters(PM_(10)), black carbon(BC), and organic carbon(OC) were 30,113.9, 4593.7, 6838.0, 20.9, 400.2, 430.5, 285.6, and 105.1 Gg, respectively, in 2006 and 34,175.2, 5167.5, 7029.4, 74.0, 386.4, 417.1, 270.9, and 106.2 Gg, respectively, in 2010. CO,VOCs, and NH_3 emissions were mainly from motorcycles and light-duty gasoline vehicles,whereas NO_X, PM_(2.5), PM_(10), and BC emissions were mainly from rural vehicles and heavyduty diesel trucks. OC emissions were mainly from motorcycles and heavy-duty diesel trucks. Vehicles of pre-China Ⅰ(vehicular emission standard of China before phase Ⅰ) and China Ⅰ(vehicular emission standard of China in phase Ⅰ) were the primary contributors to all of the pollutant emissions except NH_3, which was mainly from China Ⅲ and China Ⅳ gasoline vehicles. The total emissions of all the pollutants except NH_3 changed little from2006 to 2010. This finding can be attributed to the implementation of strict emission standards and to improvements in oil quality.     

On-board measurements of gaseous pollutant emission characteristics under real driving conditions from light-duty diesel vehicles in Chinese cities

A total of 15 light-duty diesel vehicles(LDDVs) were tested with the goal of understanding the emission factors of real-world vehicles by conducting on-board emission measurements. The emission characteristics of hydrocarbons(HC) and nitrogen oxides(NOx) at different speeds, chemical species profiles and ozone formation potential(OFP) of volatile organic compounds(VOCs) emitted from diesel vehicles with different emission standards were analyzed. The results demonstrated that emission reductions of HC and NOxhad been achieved as the control technology became more rigorous from Stage I to Stage IV. It was also found that the HC and NOxemissions and percentage of O2 dropped with the increase of speed, while the percentage of CO2 increased. The abundance of alkanes was significantly higher in diesel vehicle emissions, approximately accounting for 41.1%–45.2%, followed by aromatics and alkenes. The most abundant species were propene,ethane, n-decane, n-undecane, and n-dodecane. The maximum incremental reactivity(MIR)method was adopted to evaluate the contributions of individual VOCs to OFP. The results indicated that the largest contributors to O3 production were alkenes and aromatics, which accounted for 87.7%–91.5%. Propene, ethene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, 1-butene, and1,2,3-trimethylbenzene were the top five VOC species based on their OFP, and accounted for 54.0%-64.8% of the total OFP. The threshold dilution factor was applied to analyze the possibility of VOC stench pollution. The majority of stench components emitted from vehicle exhaust were aromatics, especially p-diethylbenzene, propylbenzene, m-ethyltoluene, and p-ethyltoluene.     

Do vehicular emissions dominate the source of C6–C8 aromatics in the megacity Shanghai of eastern China?

The characteristic ratios of volatile organic compounds(VOCs) to i-pentane, the indicator of vehicular emissions, were employed to apportion the vehicular and non-vehicular contributions to reactive species in urban Shanghai. Two kinds of tunnel experiments, one tunnel with more than 90% light duty gasoline vehicles and the other with more than 60% light duty diesel vehicles, were carried out to study the characteristic ratios of vehicle-related emissions from December 2009 to January 2010. Based on the experiments, the characteristic ratios of C6–C8aromatics to i-pentane of vehicular emissions were 0.53 ± 0.08(benzene), 0.70 ± 0.12(toluene),0.41 ± 0.09(m,p-xylenes), 0.16 ± 0.04(o-xylene), 0.023 ± 0.011(styrene), and 0.15 ± 0.02(ethylbenzene), respectively. The source apportionment results showed that around 23.3% of C6–C8 aromatics in urban Shanghai were from vehicular emissions, which meant that the non-vehicular emissions had more importance. These findings suggested that emission control of non-vehicular sources, i.e. industrial emissions, should also receive attention in addition to the control of vehicle-related emissions in Shanghai. The chemical removal of VOCs during the transport from emissions to the receptor site had a large impact on the apportionment results. Generally, the overestimation of vehicular contributions would occur when the VOC reaction rate constant with OH radicals(k OH) was larger than that of the vehicular indicator, while for species with smaller k OH than the vehicular indicator, the vehicular contribution would be underestimated by the method of characteristic ratios.     

Regulated emission characteristics of in-use LNG and diesel semi-trailer towing vehicles under real driving conditions using PEMS

On-road driving emissions of six liquefied natural gas(LNG) and diesel semi-trailer towing vehicles(STTVs) which met China Emission Standard IV and V were tested using Portable Emission Measurement System(PEMS) in northern China.Emission characteristics of these vehicles under real driving conditions were analyzed and proved that on-road emissions of heavy-duty vehicles(HDVs) were underestimated in the past.There were large differences among LNG and diesel vehicles, which also existed between China V vehicles and China IV vehicles.Emission factors showed the highest level under real driving conditions, which probably be caused by frequent acceleration, deceleration, and start-stop.NOx emission factors ranged from 2.855 to 20.939 g/km based on distance-traveled and 6.719–90.557 g/kg based on fuel consumption during whole tests, which were much higher than previous researches on chassis dynamometer.It was inferred from tests that the fuel consumption rate of the test vehicles had a strong correlation with NOx emission, and the exhaust temperature also affected the efficiency of Selected Catalytic Reduction(SCR) aftertreatment system, thus changing the NOx emission greatly.THC emission factors of LNG vehicles were 2.012–10.636 g/km, which were much higher than that of diesel vehicles(0.029–0.185 g/km).Unburned CH_4 may be an important reason for this phenomenon.Further on-road emission tests, especially CH_4 emission test should be carried out in subsequent research.In addition, the Particulate Number(PN) emission factors of diesel vehicles were at a very high level during whole tests, and Diesel Particulate Filter(DPF)should be installed to reduce PN emission.     

杭州市机动车污染物排放清单的建立

基于调研的基础数据,运用修正后的IVE排放模型及GIS系统建立了杭州市2010年1km×1km的高时空分辨率的机动车排放清单.结果表明,2010年杭州市机动车污染物CO、HC、NOx、PM的年排放量分别为44.06,2.31,4.43,0.65万t,主要来自线源道路的排放.各车型污染物分担率各不相同,汽油乘用车和公交车排放CO和HC最大,柴油重型货车和公交车是NOx和PM排放的主要来源,两种燃油下的机动车排放差异十分明显.机动车污染排放与路网密集程度及道路长度密切相关,因此西湖区和江干区排放总量远远高出其他区域.机动车各污染物排放强度空间分布均呈现由城市中心向城市边缘的递减趋势,各污染物中心城区排放量占总排量的70%以上.机动车污染物排放日变化十分明显,与人群出行规律有极大的相关性.     

IVE机动车排放模型应用研究

对IVE模型进行了系统分析和介绍,以北京市为研究对象给出了模型的主要输入参数的确定方法和思路,运用IVE模型对北京市不同车型车队的排放进行计算。结果显示：公交车和卡车的排放因子明显较高,特别是颗粒物排放因子,分别为普通轻型车的14和44倍。北京市机动车的CO、VOC、NOx和PM的平均日排放总量分别为2767.4、182.5、353.8和7.1t。对于CO和VOC,普通轻型车的分担率分别为42.0%和34.7%;对于NOx和PM而言,卡车的贡献率最高,分别达到66.3%和83.0%。此外,比较了IVE模型与MOBILE6模型的方法和计算结果,讨论了IVE模型在我国的主要应用优势。     

广州市机动车尾气排放特征研究

文章利用COPERT IV模型计算广州市机动车尾气排放因子,结合机动车保有量和构成,获得2008年广州市机动车尾气排放总量并对排放因子的速度敏感性,以及不同车型、不同排放标准、不同燃料类型机动车排放特征进行了分析。结果表明:2008年广州市机动车CO、NOX、VOC和PM的排放总量分别为138 772.42 t、80 868.69 t、24 907.26 t和3 171.97 t。摩托车和小客车是CO和VOC的主要贡献车型,贡献率总和分别达到78.31%和70.52%;而作为NOX和PM的主要贡献车型,大客车和重型货车的贡献率总和分别达到78.94%和83.72%。国0标准机动车排放水平高于其他排放标准的车型,CO和VOC的排放分担率接近于保有量比例的2倍。汽油车是CO和VOC的主要贡献车型,其排放贡献率超过80%;而PM排放主要以柴油车为主;柴油车的NOX排放总量高,接近于汽油车的2倍。     

轻型汽油车简易瞬态工况法与定容全流稀释采样法(CVS)的排放相关性

选取25辆国2~国5标准在用轻型汽油车分别采用简易瞬态工况法(VMAS)与定容全流稀释采样法(CVS)开展了排放实测,分析了两种方法实测的排放因子相关性.结果表明,轻型汽油车排放水平总体随排放标准提升而呈下降趋势,国2和国3标准车辆中存在一定的高排放现象,国4及以上标准车型排放相对较低.VMAS和CVS方法的排放相关性随标准提升而显著下降,对国4及以上标准车辆的CO和HC+NO_x排放的相对偏差分别达到197%和177%.对较高排放车辆,两种方法检测结果的相关系数达到0.75~0.85;对较低排放车辆,相关系数仅为0.46左右,若将在用车排放标准进一步收严,采用VMAS检测的误判率将显著上升.随着我国机动车排放水平的不断下降,总体来看,VMAS检测对高排放标准车辆的适用性相对较差,有必要在用车排放检测方法方面开展更为深入的研究.     

基于遥感尾气监测的柴油车气态污染物排放因子计算方法研究

采用遥感尾气测试系统实测了柴油车在实际道路工况下的CO、HC和NO排放特征,修正了排放因子的计算方法,并与车载排放测试系统（PEMS）实测结果进行了验证,获得了实测车辆的CO、HC和NO排放因子.测试结果显示,在各种遥感监测的工况下柴油车尾气中均含有较高浓度的氧气,未考虑氧气影响的燃烧方程反演获得的各污染物体积浓度计算值与PEMS实测值的偏差较大,且氧气浓度越大,偏差越大.经过氧气修正的燃烧方程反演计算的尾气浓度与PEMS实测值吻合度大幅提升,适用于实际工况下遥感检测车辆尾气的反演计算.修正算法得到CO、HC和NO的排放因子离散性较小,精确度较高,可以为量化柴油车尾气排放贡献提供科学依据.     

机动车比功率在高排污车辆鉴别中的应用

机动车尾气遥感监测是I/M制度的有益补充.以2004年广州市机动车尾气遥感监测实验为基础,对实验数据作了深入分析.结果表明,占全体车辆10%的高排污车辆所排放的一氧化碳(CO)、碳氢化合物(HC)和氮氧化合物(NOx)分别占当日该污染物总量的36.81%,41.80%和48.52%,证明了高排污车辆是造成机动车排放污染的最主要污染源.进一步引入机动车比功率概念研究了机动车比功率与污染物排放之间的关系,并对15次实验结果进行了对比研究.结果表明,在不同测量中,CO、HC和NOx的排放与机动车比功率区间分布具有较好的一致性.分布规律还表明,在遥感监测中,在机动车比功率区间高值部分,机动车的CO或者HC的高排放为瞬间高排放,此时,不能将其判别为高排污车辆.将此结论用于基于神经网络的高排污车辆鉴别模型中,使高排污车辆的正确判断率达到95%.     

遥感法用于车辆实际道路行驶污染状况评估

为了评估满足不同排放标准的在用车在实际道路行驶条件下的污染状况,以2013年3-11月间在北京市朝阳区收集的16.5×104组在用汽油车排放遥感测试大数据为基础,对北京市的在用车实际道路排放水平进行分析和评价.结果表明:新车排放标准升级明显降低了在用车的CO、HC和NO平均排放浓度.从国Ⅰ/国Ⅱ到国Ⅲ以及从国Ⅲ到国Ⅳ/国Ⅴ,每次标准升级使得在用车的CO排放浓度平均降低12%~15%,HC和NO排放浓度分别降低13%和40%左右.与2003年相比,北京市2013年机动车CO、HC和NO排放的平均浓度分别下降了52.1%、82.1%和65.3%,排放标准升级带来的减排效果十分明显.未来排放标准升级过程中应当强化对在用车实际驾驶过程排放的监管,同时积极引导老旧车辆的淘汰更新,加大对排放造假行为的执法和处罚力度.      

杭州市机动车NO_x排放清单的建立及其对空气质量的影响

以杭州市主城区为例,对车辆信息(包括车流量和车辆构成、车辆控制技术水平、车辆行驶工况、车辆启动分布等)进行了调研和测试,并根据IVE模型计算了机动车NOx的排放清单.结果表明,2004年杭州市主城区机动车NOx排放总量为25 100 t,其中,轻型客车、出租车、公交车、重型货车和轻型货车的年排放量分别为5 800,1 100,7 300,9 200和1 700 t.在此基础上,通过AERMOD模型模拟了城市机动车源NOx年均质量浓度以及城市空气中总的NOx年均质量浓度空间分布,得出机动车排放的NOx对总的NOx年均质量浓度的贡献率为40.91%,并对贡献率的空间分布进行了分析.     

利用IVE模型进行公交车尾气排放分析

介绍了IVE尾气排放模型并与MOBILE模型进行了比较分析。使用GPS对上海市公交车多条运行线路进行了实时运行速度测量,得到上海公交车运行模式的BIN分布,对上海市CNG公交车和柴油公交车的尾气排放进行了模拟计算。结果表明使用CNG公交车代替柴油公交车后,NOX和PM的排放均有显著的降低,但采用不同技术的CNG公交车尾气排放仍有很大的差异,无催化转化和尾气再循环的CNG公交车的CO排放量远高于同类型柴油公交车的排放量。认为IVE模型的模拟结果具有较好的可靠性,其计算模式适用于我国机动车尾气排放清单分析的研究。