近百年来大辽河口潮间带中滴滴涕（DDTs）的沉积记录及其对人类活动的响应

滴滴涕(DDTs)在中国农业生产中的使用已被禁止30多年,但仍在多种环境介质中有检出.潮间带作为陆地与海洋交汇区,是污染物在环境中重要的汇.为全面了解近百年来大辽河口潮间带中DDTs的沉积特征,本研究通过在大辽河口潮间带采集柱状沉积物样品,结合定年结果,揭示了近百年来大辽河口潮间带柱状沉积物中DDTs的污染特征,并对其潜在风险、源趋和影响因素进行了分析.结果显示,大辽河口潮间带柱状沉积物中DDTs浓度范围为0.313—4.116 ng·g~(-1)(中值:2.061 ng·g~(-1)),以p,p′-DDTs为主要污染物.1988—1996年为沉积物中DDTs污染高峰期(3.436—4.116 ng·g~(-1)),与1971—1981年农药生产高峰期相对应,且存在约15年的延迟.2000年以后,辽宁省可能存在工业DDT的使用,且与疾病防控有关.经风险评估发现,DDT和DDE在0—110 cm范围内均极少(25%)对底栖生物产生负效应,而DDD和总DDTs在0—44 cm范围内偶尔(25%—50%)对底栖生物产生负效应.DDTs的特征比值分析表明,大辽河口潮间带沉积柱中DDTs主要来源于工业DDT的历史污染而非三氯杀螨醇的使用.DDT降解产物在深层(62—110 cm)以DDE为主,而在浅层(0—62 cm)以DDD为主.1971年后人为活动导致TOC含量的增加是促使大辽河口潮间带沉积物由好氧环境转变为厌氧环境的重要因素.此外,大辽河口潮间带沉积物中DDTs浓度与沉积物性质(总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)和总有机碳(TOC))具有极显著相关性(P0.01),且与辽宁省GDP、城市化率和农业总产值等人为活动具有极显著正相关性(P0.01).综上,由潮间带沉积柱中DDTs的浓度和组成反映出人类活动直接或间接影响了潮间带中污染物的存在和归趋.     

黄浦江水相中有机氯农药的污染特征分析

本文研究了黄浦江水相中有机氯农药的浓度分布、组成特征和污染来源;分析黄浦江水体中有机氯农药(OCPs)含量的时空变化;在黄浦江水相样品中,除了甲氧氯在所有样品中均未检出外,其他20种有机氯农药在样品中均被检出,在所有水样中的OCPs浓度范围为0.29—44.7(中值2.19)ng·L~(-1).六六六(HCHs)是主要污染物,其次为滴滴涕(DDTs),浓度分别为0.13—38.3(中值0.92)ng·L~(-1)、0.03—3.28(中值0.63)ng·L~(-1).HCHs呈现出自上游至下游浓度逐渐升高的趋势,DDTs在上、下游无明显的空间分布规律.HCHs、DDTs的浓度均呈现夏季低、冬季高、春秋介于中间的季节性规律.     

闽江水体和生物体中六六六和滴滴涕污染特征和来源解析

六六六(HCHs)和滴滴涕(DDTs)是一类难降解的环境污染物,可在生物体内蓄积并通过食物链传递,对生态环境及人体健康造成严重威胁。以闽江下游河段水体(壁头到草霞洲)和14种生物体为研究对象,使用气相色谱-电子捕获检测器(GC-μECD)测量了其HCHs和DDTs残留量,并进行了组成特征和来源分析。结果表明:该河段水体∑HCHs和∑DDTs质量浓度范围分别为1.031~1.804和0.767~1.156 ng·L~(-1),低于国家《地表水环境质量标准》,且壁头高于草霞洲。两个采样点∑HCHs浓度表现为表层水高于深层水,溶解相高于颗粒相;∑DDTs浓度表现为表层水低于深层水,颗粒相高于溶解相。生物体中,HCHs质量分数为0.725~5.574 ng·g~(-1),以β-HCH为主,占27.8%~62.6%;DDTs质量分数为2.266~9.189 ng·g~(-1),以p,p'-DDT为主,占14.9%~43.6%。闽江生物体中残留量和生物富集系数DDTs高于HCHs,且均是鱼类蟹类沼虾类。其中,白条钝鰕虎鱼最大,白鲫鱼最低。HCHs和DDTs组成特征表明,闽江水体和生物体中α-HCH/γ-HCH比值分别为0.891~1.104和0.416~3.871,低于工业HCHs中α-HCH/γ-HCH比值,说明闽江HCHs主要来源于林丹的使用;而闽江水体和生物体中o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT比值分别为0.434~0.739和0.396~1.543,高于工业DDTs中o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT比值,说明闽江DDTs主要来源于历史残留,且可能存在三氯杀螨醇的输入。虽然闽江水体和生物体中HCHs和DDTs残留量相对较低,但由于其具有高生物富集性等特征,仍需对其加强监测,以保证闽江流域环境及水产品安全。     

长三角地区饮用水源地沉积物中有机氯农药污染特征

2015年4月采集长江三角洲地区河流型、河网型和湖泊型饮用水源地沉积物,采用同位素稀释高分辨气相色谱-高分辨质谱法测定了22种有机氯农药(OCPs).结果表明,采集的沉积物中测定的22种有机氯农药都有检出,滴滴涕(DDTs)、六氯苯、六六六(BHCs)、五氯苯的检出率为100%;有机氯污染水平依次为:嘉兴河网(浓度范围为1.71—61 ng·g~(-1),中值为12.4 ng·g~(-1))长江下游(浓度范围为0.46—93 ng·g~(-1),中值为8.59 ng·g~(-1))≈钱塘江(浓度范围为1.02—69 ng·g~(-1),中值为8.1 ng·g~(-1))太湖(浓度范围为1.76—8.65 ng·g~(-1),中值为3.53 ng·g~(-1)).DDT及其降解产物的浓度与其他地区的含量相当.依据DDTs和BHCs的同分异构体比值的变化和主成分分析结果对污染源进行解析,结果表明嘉兴河网主要以氯丹、九氯和六六六为主要污染特征,该地区有氯丹的使用和六六六的历史残留.钱塘江主要以BHCs、氯丹和DDTs为主要污染特征,有林丹的输入.太湖主要污染特征为DDTs和BHCs,并有新源输入.长江下游主要以o,p'-DDT和BHCs为污染特征,有些采样点表明有三氯杀螨醇的使用,六六六为历史残留.对长三角地区水源地沉积物进行生态评价发现,滴滴涕类有机氯农药存在潜在生态风险,其中DDTs具有潜在生态风险的采样点占74%,具有生态风险的采样点占2%.     

济源盆地地表水和地下水的水化学及氢、氧同位素特征

运用氢氧同位素和水化学成分作为水循环过程的示踪剂,研究济源盆地地表水和地下水之间的转化关系.通过现场调查,系统地采集了该区浅层、中深层地下水和河水样品,并在实验室进行了水化学成分(K+、Na+、Ca2+、Mg2+、Cl-、SO2-4、HCO-3)和氢氧稳定同位素组分(D、18O)测定.基于水化学和同位素测定结果,揭示盆地地表水和地下水循环特征.水化学分析结果显示,济源盆地水体的水化学类型主要为HCO3-SO4-Ca-Mg,属于低矿化度水,浅层地下水和河水联系紧密,不同水体水化学成分主要受到岩石风化作用的影响.氢氧稳定同位素研究表明,大气降水是盆地不同水体的主要补给源,地下水在接受降水的补给后经过了不同程度的蒸发作用,中深层地下水受蒸发影响较小,浅层地下水和河水受蒸发影响较大.浅层地下水和河水的主要补给方式是地表大气降水的垂直渗入补给,中深层地下水接受北部太行山区的径流补给,补给高程为620—1185 m.     

辽宁省西部和沈阳地区河水及地下水中溴的分布与污染特征

利用HPLC-ICP-MS方法分析辽宁省西部河水及其沿岸地下水中溴化物、溴酸盐的含量,调查了溴化物、溴酸盐的污染现状.结果表明,大凌河和小凌河河水中总溴浓度范围20.5-364μg·l~(-1),和总氯浓度呈良好相关关系,由回归方程得到的Br/Cl比值分别为2.91和0.83μg·mg~(-1).大凌河该比值在雨水的范围之内,而小凌河该比值则町能受到岩盐溶解的部分影响.大凌河和小凌河河水中溴与氯浓度的相关性与自然界观察到的天然比值范围足相符合的,表明河水未受到溴的污染.细河河水和地下水总溴浓度范围26.6-4070μg·l~(-1),平均浓度1584μg·l~(-1),Br/Cl比值范围2.73-25.2 μg·mg~(-1).细河河水和地下水中的溴浓度明显高于浑河、蒲河和沈抚灌渠,平均Br/Cl比值高达12μg·mg~(-1),远非降水来源所能解释.细河浅层地下水中溴酸盐被检出的浓度存在两处超标情况,分别为31和15μg·l~(-1).浅层地下水中高溴离子浓度和具有强烈毒理效应的溴酸盐的存在对该地区生态系统和人类健康具有潜在负面影响.     

巢湖湖区及入湖河流表层水体、沉积物中有机氯农药分布及风险评价

本研究基于GC-MS分析了巢湖湖区及入湖河流共40个采样点的表层水及表层沉积物样品中有机氯杀虫剂(OCPs)的含量.研究结果表明,在一年内不同季节中,巢湖湖区及入湖河流表层水体∑OCPs浓度均较低,春季6.09—11.53 ng·L~(-1),夏季6.32—11.10 ng·L~(-1),秋季6.76—16.23 ng·L~(-1),冬季5.97—16.29 ng·L~(-1);相应季节OCPs平均浓度分别为8.33±1.19 ng·L~(-1),8.43±1.21 ng·L~(-1),9.25±1.96 ng·L~(-1)和8.33±2.14 ng·L~(-1).表层水体中OCPs主要为工业生产六六六(HCHs)以及杀虫剂林丹.湖区及入湖河流表层沉积物中OCPs浓度(ng·g~(-1)级别)远高于表层水体(ng·L~(-1)级别)的浓度,∑OCPs浓度范围为2.55—19.03 ng·g~(-1),平均浓度为5.80±4.07 ng·g~(-1),且巢湖西部地区OCPs污染大于东部区域,其中较高浓度的狄氏剂和硫丹成分说明巢湖区域受到这两类物质的污染.异构体分析表明,表层沉积物中OCPs的来源也与周边农田土壤和地表径流所带来的污染以及不同程度工业品HCHs粉剂和林丹的陆源性输入有关;在绝大多数采样点的表层沉积物中滴滴涕类农药(DDTs)的检出为历史的残留污染.生态风险评价表明,巢湖湖区及入湖河流表层水体中OCPs对该区域的生态风险几乎没有影响且表层沉积物中OCPs亦处于较低的风险状态.     

巢湖主要湖口水体和表层沉积物中有机氯农药的残留特征及风险评价

为了解巢湖湖口有机氯农药的污染状况,采集8个主要湖口的水体和沉积物样品,水样采用C18固相富集,沉积物用加速溶剂萃取仪提取后,萃取液浓缩、净化后,微量浓缩,用气相色谱-质谱联用仪分析测定21种有机氯农药.结果表明,研究区水体和表层沉积物中OCPs总量范围分别为40.1—87.7 ng·L~(-1)和11—26.3 ng·g~(-1),HCHs和DDTs为主要污染物,约占79.9%和65.1%.水体中OCPs含量从高到低依次为:南淝河十五里河双桥河派河裕溪河杭埠河大柘皋河小柘皋河;表层沉积物中OCPs含量从高到低依次为:十五里河双桥河南淝河裕溪河派河大柘皋河杭埠河小柘皋河.OCPs污染水平表现为城市污染控制型河流高于水土保持和面源污染控制型河流.根据组成物质成分比例关系进行源解析,发现水体和沉积物中HCHs和DDTs主要来自于早期农药蓄积残留,且降解环境以好氧为主.与国内其他湖泊对比,巢湖OCPs污染处于中等偏低水平.水体中HCHs、DDTs和六氯苯均未超过地表水环境质量标准,但表层沉积物中有机氯农药存在一定的生态风险.     

典型灌区稻田多氯联苯残留特征及生态风险评估

以南方典型小灌区的两块稻田为试验小区,采用GC-ECD对其田间水体和土壤中EPA优控14种多氯联苯（PCBs）进行了检测和定量分析。结果表明,14种PCBs同系物有不同程度检出,优势残留物主要以3氯和5氯取代PCBs为主,水和土壤占PCBs总量的88.24%、90.13%。水中∑PCBs质量浓度为24.09～310.34ng·L^-1,其中地表水均值为245.84ng·L^-1,地下水均值为96.46ng·L^-1;土壤中∑PCBs质量分数为10.01～54.63ng·g^-1,均值为33.92ng·g^-1。稻田地表水中的PCBs质量浓度远高于地下水,垂向迁移明显但速度较慢;稻田地表及地下水中PCBs质量浓度有随时间衰减的趋势,可能与水稻的生育周期有关;淹灌处理稻田PCBs质量分数高于节水灌溉。研究区毒性当量TEQ在2.65×10^-2～7.54×10^-2pg·g^-1之间,生态风险处于中等水平。地表及地下水均遭到污染,再加上PCBs具有生态累积效应,危害不容忽视。     

三种表面活性剂对高浓度DDTs污染土壤的洗脱作用

以高浓度滴滴涕(DDTs)污染场地土壤为研究对象,采用表面活性剂洗脱试验,比较研究了聚氧乙烯山梨糖醇酐单硬脂酸酯(Tween60)、辛基酚聚氧乙烯醚(TritonX 100)、十二烷基硫酸钠(SDS)对污染土壤中DDTs的洗脱效率.试验结果表明,三种表面活性剂对污染土壤中DDTs均具有一定的洗脱作用,去离子水对DDTs几乎没有洗脱效果.随着洗脱液中Tween60和SDS质量浓度的逐渐升高,土壤中DDTs的总洗脱效率逐渐增大,一次性洗脱时最大洗脱效率分别为43.60%和34.62%.随着洗脱液中TritonX 100质量浓度的逐渐升高,土壤中DDTs的总洗脱效率出现先增大后降低再升高的变化现象,最大为15.46%.土壤中六种DDT组分的洗脱效率不完全一样,其中Tween60对2,4'-DDD的洗脱效率可达55.12%,对4,4'-DDD的洗脱效率为54.09%;SDS对2,4'-DDD的洗脱效率为59.99%,对4,4'-DDD的洗脱效率为57.10%.试验结果可为筛选适宜的表面活性剂及质量浓度,研发高浓度DDTs污染场地土壤表面活性剂洗脱修复技术的工程应用提供理论依据.     

森林土壤固碳机理研究进展

全球碳平衡中,土壤有机碳储量为2000 Pg,植被碳储量500 Pg,大气碳储量785 Pg,土壤中有机碳变化是影响大气温室气体含量的重要因素。中国人工林总量世界第一,可以通过造林树种的选择,增加森林土壤的碳汇功能,它主要通过4种机理来实现,包括稳定性有机-矿物复合体的形成、持久性封存的深层碳的增加、耐分解有机物成份的积累、以及土壤团聚体结构中碳的物理性保护。中国近年来对木材的需求上升,导致大量短轮伐期人工林的种植,采伐、火烧炼山、施肥与整地等营林措施对土壤碳汇功能形成重大影响。因而,通过加强对中国人工林土壤固碳机理的研究,通过人为措施实现具有较强固碳能力的森林类型,从而提高人工森林生态系统的固碳能力,它对中国减排增汇战略具有重要意义,而加强对不同营林措施对碳汇功能影响的研究是中国当前面临的重大课题。     

Evaluating losses in ecosystem services in nature reserves in Sichuan,China

Nature reserves have developed rapidly over the decades in China and play a significant role in the function of ecosystem services. The function of ecosystem services in nature reserves, however, has tended to decline in recent years due to natural hazards and human activities. Based on land use, the variation of ecosystem services value (ESV) during 2000–2010 in national nature reserves in Sichuan was evaluated. We analyzed the comprehensive effects of natural disasters and human activities on the decline of ESVs. Total ESV in the national nature reserves in Sichuan was approximately 2741.35 million US$ in 2000, 2616.81 million US$ in 2005, and 2499.06 million US$ in 2010, representing a decrease of 242.29 million US$, or 8.84%, in the decade. Forestland, grassland, wetland, and water bodies played vital roles in the function of ecosystem services, with an aggregated ESV of 99% of the total. The largest proportion of the total ESV was the protection of biodiversity at 48.6%. ESV of all land use types and single ecosystem services continued to decline during 2000–2010. A mechanism of adaptable risk prevention should be established, and unreasonable human activities should be avoided to protect ecosystems and to improve the functions of ecosystem services.     

Is the antipredatory response in behaviour reflected in stress measured in faecal corticosteroids in a small rodent?

Predation risk has been shown to alter various behaviours in prey. Risk alters activity, habitat use and foraging, and weight decrease might be a consequence of that. In mammals, studies on physiological measures affected by risk of predation, other than weight, are rare. We studied in two separate laboratory experiments foraging, hoarding behaviour and expression of stress measured non-invasively from the faeces in the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), a common boreal rodent. Voles were exposed to predation risk using odours of the least weasels (Mustela nivalis nivalis). Distilled water served as control. In the first experiment, we found that foraging effort, measured as sunflower seeds taken from seed trays filled with sand, was significantly lower in trays scented with weasel odour. Both immediate consumption of seeds and hoarding were affected negatively by the weasel odour. Females hoarded significantly more than males in autumn. In the second experiment, the negative effect of weasel odour on foraging was consistent over a 3-day experiment, but the strongest effect was observed in the first night. Foraging increased over the time of the experiment, which might reflect either energetic compensation during a longer period of risk, predicted in the predation risk allocation hypothesis, or habituation to the odour-simulated risk. Despite decreased foraging under predation risk, stress measured as corticosteroid metabolite concentration in vole faeces was not affected by the weasel odour treatment. In conclusion, we were able to verify predation-risk-mediated changes in the foraging effort of bank voles but no physiological stress response was measured non-invasively, probably due to great individual variation in secretion of stress hormones.     

中国水稻土碳循环研究进展

文章首先分析了水稻土在碳循环研究中的地位和重要性，进而对我目水稻土碳循环的研究现状作了较为详尽的阐述，对其主要研究结论进行了深入的剖析。中国大而积的水稻土自1980年以来显示出有机碳库增加现象，说明水稻田对大气CO2可能产生汇效应。水耕熟化过程足有机碳的积累过程，水稻土的碳密度是早作土碳密度的2-3倍。水稻土的同碳能力与土壤的微团聚体的粒径有关。但对于水稻土中有机碳的分布和结合状态与农业管理措施、水稻土质量变化、农业生态环境变化的关系仍不清楚。因而建议就这一问题从土壤物理学、化学和生物学的相互作朋与土壤微团聚体中矿物质、有机质和微生物的相互结合关系的层面上进行多学科研究。同时提出了今后我困水稻土碳循环的重点研究方向和领域，即从整体和系统的角度来研究碳循环和平衡，从不同的时空区域来研究碳循环的过程和强度。     

中国公众参与环境管理的研究

回顾了中国公众参与环境管理的发展历程,分析了公众参与环境管理存在的问题。针对公众参与环境保护管理的有效性的影响因子,例如主观因素、传统背景、时效因素及执行技巧等进行一系列的探讨,并根据公众参与计划的设计构思、公众参与计划的关键两方面的讨论,提出增加公众参与环境保护管理有效性的一些建议。     

Lead in a residential environment in Jamaica

The background levels of lead in Jamaica in soils and sediments, estimated at 37 mg kg^–1, are relatively high compared with world averages. Several areas have values in excess of this due to mineralisation and pollution. One such is the residential Hope Flats/Kintyre area in which levels of lead up to 2.5% are found in the soils and up to 8 g kg^–1 in the water of the nearby Hope River. The blood lead levels of a sample of children were in the range 5.7–57 g dl^–1. The high lead levels suggest a potential health risk, particularly for the children. This can be minimised by programmes which include community education, case management and abatement to reduce the lead exposure.     

硝基芳香化合物的植物作用研究进展

硝基芳香化合物是环境中难以降解的污染物之一。因其用途广泛,大量残留于土壤,水体和大气中,造成的环境污染日趋严重。多种植物对该类污染物具有吸收、富集和代谢降解作用,利用植物对其环境污染进行治理是一种有效的方法。文章在总结国内外有关硝基芳香化合物的植物作用研究基础上,重点阐述了植物对硝基芳香化合物的吸收、转运和代谢过程,分析了吸收、代谢机理以及影响吸收的因素;硝基芳香化合物的理化特性、浓度和植物自身特性及其它外界条件都会影响植物对该类化合物的吸收,植物可以通过体内降解、体外联合代谢、根部释放酶催化的机制实现该类化合物的降解。目前,硝基芳香化合物进入植物细胞膜的机理认知不足,模拟模型缺乏有力数据验证;代谢机制中参与反应的酶、化合物等体系和反应产物环境特性仍不明确,植物修复可行性缺乏有力证据。未来将在模型预测构建、降解机理和修复工程的实际应用方面作进一步探究,以形成系统的认知,为硝基芳香化合物污染土壤和农产品的生态风险评价以及植物修复提供理论依据。     

生物扰动在水层-底栖界面耦合中的作用

综合评述了生物扰动在水层-底栖界面耦合中的作用研究进展和热点问题,并进行了展望。国际上十分重视水层-底栖界面耦合过程的研究并已有一定基础,生物扰动作为海洋生态学的重要内容之一早在20世纪50—60年代就已开展了工作,但直到10余年前才真正开始定量研究,进入了实验模拟、现场观测与建立模型相结合的新阶段。国内的生物扰动研究尚处于起步阶段,加上技术方法落后,一直未能取得突破性进展。目前国内外关于水层-底栖界面生物扰动效应研究基本上都在海洋中开展,尤其在河口、近岸和浅海水域进行,湖泊和河流研究明显薄弱。作为水生态动力学的重要分支和前沿领域,生物扰动研究具有广阔前景。急需针对我国水域特点,引进先进的现场观测和室内测试手段,进一步揭示水层-底栖界面耦合过程中的生物扰动机制,更精准和更详细地掌握水域中各种物质的生物地球化学循环的全过程,为控制水体内源污染释放、富营养化治理和生态建模等提供科学依据。     

Employment of passive sampling in monitoring indoor air quality in selected residences in a Tri-city area in Poland

Time-weighted average concentrations of selected volatile compounds were measured in chosen residences in a Tri-City area of Poland by means of passive sampling. The results were compared to those obtained by dynamic technique – sorption tubes filled with Tenax TA sorbent. Results obtained by employing the two techniques were similar. Total volatile organic compound (TVOC) parameters were also determined. An attempt was also made to evaluate the influence of outdoor air pollutants on indoor air quality.     

Bioavailability of trace metals in brownfield soils in an urban area in the UK

Thirty-two brownfield sites from the city of Wolverhampton were selected from those with a former industrial use, wasteland or areas adjacent to industrial processes. Samples (<2 mm powdered soil fraction) were analysed, using inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometry (ICP–AES) for 20 elements. Loss on ignition and pH were also determined. A five-step chemical sequential extraction technique was carried out. Single leach extraction with 0.12 M hydrochloric acid of Pb, Cu and Zn in soil was determined as a first approximation of the bioavailability in the human stomach. Some of the sites were found to have high concentrations of the potentially toxic elements Pb, Zn, Cu and Ni. The partitioning of metals showed a high variability, however a number of trends were determined. The majority of Zn was partitioned into the least chemically stable phases (steps 1, 2 and 3). The majority of Cu was associated with the organic phase (step 4) and the majority of Ni was fractionated into the residue phase (step 5). The majority of Pb was associated with the residue fraction (step 5) followed by Fe–Mn oxide fraction (step 3). The variability reflects the heterogeneous and complex nature of metal speciation in urban soils with varied historic histories. There was a strong inverse linear relationship between the metals Ni, Zn and Pb in the readily exchangeable phase (step 1) and soil pH, significant at P < 0.01 level. There was a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the partitioning of Cu, Ni and Zn into step 4 (the organic phase) in soils with a higher organic carbon content (estimated by loss on ignition). Copper was highly partitioned into step 4 as it has a strong association with organics in soil but this phase was not important for the partitioning of Ni or Zn. The fractionation of Ni, Cu and Zn increased significantly in step 3 when the total metal concentration increases (P < 0.01). The Fe–Mn oxide fraction becomes more important in soils elevated in these metals, possibly due to the scavenging of metals by oxides. Cu and Pb extracted by HCl was statistically similar to the sum of the metals in steps 1 to 4 (P < 0.01) and HCl available Zn was statistically similar to the sum of Zn in steps 1 to 3 (P < 0.01). Step 4 (the organic phase) was not an important phase for Zn, so it was concluded that any Cu, Zn and Pb present in soil in a nonresidue phase would be potentially available for uptake into the human system once soil has been ingested.