农业生态系统中同位素示踪技术及发展趋势

在土壤侵蚀研究中，^137Cs、^210Pb和^7Be示踪技术已得到广泛应用，^210Pb主要用在沉积速率的测定及沉积年代的示踪研究上，^137Cs特别适用于大面积的水土流失普查和土壤侵蚀普查，^7Be用于短期内土壤侵蚀研究。在土壤肥效和植物营养元素研究中，常用^13C、^32P和^15N及其化合物示踪定量评价土壤养分，追踪植物对养分的吸收、运转、分配和代谢过程。在环境污染方面，用重金属如Pb、Hg、Cd、Zn等元素的同位素判别污染物质来源，研究污染历史和污染元素在土-水-气-植物中的迁移转化以及在动物有机体内的迁移累积。文章综述了同位素示踪技术在上述方面的应用现状和发展趋势。     

田湾核电站周边土壤及植物中137Cs含量调查及人群内辐射风险评价

为了调查田湾核电站运行后土壤环境中核素137Cs放射性水平的变化及评估其对当地居民的健康风险,采用现场采样测定的方法,分析了田湾核电站装料2年后周边土壤及植物中137Cs的放射性水平,并与运行前的本底调查结果进行了比较,同时利用放射性核素对人群内辐射风险评价模型结合田湾地区居民饮食情况对人群辐射风险进行了评估.结果表明,核电站运行2年后周边土壤中137Cs的放射性水平与运行前相比总体上没有明显变化,但个别村镇点位的137Cs放射性水平升高;核电站周边植物中137Cs的放射性水平均远低于我国相关国家标准(GB14882-1994)和运行前的本底值;田湾地区高公岛居民核素137Cs的年总摄入量为18.62Bq·a-1,远低于我国国标成人限值(GB14882-1994).通过摄入137Cs引起的人群内辐射总致癌风险较低,为1.51×10-7a-1,其中超过50%的风险来源于摄入鱼类海产品.     

137 Cs在我国滨海核电周边海洋生物的富集及生态风险研究

铯-137(~(137)Cs)是滨海核电站液态流出物中主要人工放射性核素和重要监控指标之一,易被水生生物累积,有关核电周边海域内海洋生物的核素富集状况备受关注。通过分析海洋生物富集放射性~(137)Cs的方式、生物富集系数的种群特征、人工放射性核素在生物体内的辐射剂量率状况,结果显示:1)滨海核电周边海域内~(137)Cs的放射性水平较低; 2)海洋生物对于~(137)Cs的富集未呈现显著的种群规律; 3)目前对放射性铯的富集能力较高的生物主要是底栖生物; 4)核电厂周边海域内海洋生物通常未达到可导致电离辐射损伤的辐射剂量率水平。随着滨海核电在我国的大力发展,对能够快速反映环境放射性状况的指示生物的筛选、生物放射性质量安全及其生态健康风险需进一步关注。     

核素~(137)Cs在北太平洋典型生物体内的分布与富集

为了解日本福岛核泄漏对北太平洋公海渔场海洋生物的危害程度及影响状况,2011—2012年连续两年在北太平公海渔场采集典型生物样品,采用γ谱仪进行检测,发现所采样品均含有放射性核素~(137)Cs。同时运用分类和分组织器官等处理方法,进行对照分析。结果显示,(1)2011年,~(137)Cs在鲨鱼(Mustelus griseus)体内的分布最高,高达1.16Bq·kg~(-1),最低是日本海的太平洋褶柔鱼(Todarodes pacificus),仅为0.05 Bq·kg~(-1)。2012年整体上所有海洋生物体内的~(137)Cs质量活度降低了1个数量级,~(137)Cs最高质量活度出现在蜞鳅(Coryphaena hippurus)体内,达0.04 Bq·kg~(-1),最低也是日本海的太平洋褶柔鱼,仅为0.001 Bq·kg~(-1)。(2)2011年中不同胴长组巴特柔鱼(Ommastrephes bartramii)的~(137)Cs质量活度最高的是250~300mm,达到了0.73 Bq·kg~(-1)。2012年中~(137)Cs质量活度最高的胴长组是200~250 mm,达0.034 Bq·kg~(-1)。(3)从两年巴特柔鱼的不同组织部位的质量活度分布情况来看,内脏聚集的核素~(137)Cs质量活度最高,其他3个部位(头部、躯干和鳍部)明显偏低。(4)通过两年的营养级分析,~(137)Cs核素质量活度初步呈倒金字塔分布。所测得的生物体中的核素质量活度水平均未超过中国食品放射性核素质量活度的限制水平与通用水平。初步了解了核泄漏对北太平洋公海主要渔场核辐射的影响,以期为海洋放射性深入研究提供基础资料。     

南太湖沉积岩芯中金属和营养元素的垂向分布特征及其意义

通过太湖南部钻孔(THS)沉积物^137Cs和^210Pb、总有机碳、总氮、总磷、粒度和金属元素分析，探讨其垂向分布特征及意义。表层^137Cs比活度高值表明表层沉积物具有混合作用的特征。粒度分析表明，沉积物呈现随深度变浅而变粗的总体趋势；绝大多数金属元素含量垂向上的变化与粘土含量呈正相关。铁锰界面循环也影响着金属元素的迁移。沉积物W(C)／w(N)比值的状况显示了其有机质主要为陆源性质，但最近60年内来源于水体的有机质呈现增加的趋势。沉积物中元素的演化序列表明，元素铅受到明显的人为活动来源的污染。     

改性斜发沸石吸附水中氨氮的研究

研究了改性斜发沸石对水中氨氮的吸附行为，考察了pH值，氨氮初始浓度以及竞争阳离子等对钠型沸石吸附氨氮的影响，同时进行了钠型沸石的吸附动力学研究。结果表明，采用饱和氯化钠改性制备得到的钠型沸石具有较大的饱和吸附容量，受氨氮初始浓度和溶液pH值的影响，钠型沸石吸附氨氮的行为在YNH4^ =0.5时发生偏离，竞争阳离子的存在在不同程度上抑制了钠型沸石对氨氮的吸附。钠型沸石吸附氨氮的行为在YNH4^ ＝0．5时发生偏离。竞争阳离子的存在在不同程度上抑制了钠型沸石对氨氮的吸附。钠型沸石吸附氨氮速度的控制步骤是内扩散步骤，可采用Vermeulen吸附模型加以描述。     

土壤中腐殖酸对外源农用稀土生物可利用性的影响

采用盆栽实验方法，研究了腐殖酸对稀土元素在土壤-植物体系中的迁移、富集和生物可利用性的影响，结果表明，在试验土壤红壤中，稀土元素主要富集在小麦根部，加入低浓度的腐殖酸后，促进了小麦对稀土元素的吸收：而高浓度的腐殖酸则抑制小麦对稀土元素的吸收，腐殖酸浓度过高时，对小麦生长产生毒害作用，同时发现，小麦中叶绿素含量与小麦中稀土含量存在相关关系。     

鸭绿江口137Cs的沉积记录及其意义

根据2013、2014、2018年鸭绿江口16个柱状样的¹³⁷Cs沉积记录,分析了其垂向分布特征,划分了¹³⁷Cs的4种沉积类型.根据柱状样¹³⁷Cs蓄积量较高、沉积连续、沉积过程清楚、最大蓄积峰对应1963年的特征初步确定了适合河口不同沉积状态的4个“参考”剖面,并与理想状态的大气沉降曲线进行了对比分析,显示鸭绿江口参考剖面的¹³⁷Cs沉积记录与大气沉降量(输入函数)曲线基本吻合. 1963年的主计年时标涵盖大部分柱状样,层位清楚、容易识别、可以信赖.鸭绿江口存在疑似1975年和1986年¹³⁷Cs的计年时标,但用于计年时需谨慎. 1986年以后大多数沉积记录显示了¹³⁷Cs沉积迅速降低的趋势,其他少部分柱状样的¹³⁷Cs蓄积峰是动力过程混合或扩散作用的结果,也不排除陆源输送.表层沉积物大多数站位检测不出¹³⁷Cs,说明近期陆源¹³⁷Cs的输送量微乎其微,个别站位表层中较多的^13...     

90Sr、137Cs在河流-沉积物体系的吸附规律研究进展

90Sr、134Cs在河流-沉积物体系的吸附规律及分配系数(Kd)是我国内陆核电厂选址和核环境安全管理的重要环节,放射性核素在河流-沉积物体系的吸附规律包括:①放射性核素在河流、沉积物中的浓度分布;②核素在河流-沉积物体系的分配系数;③多种因素对放射性核素在河流.沉积物中吸附规律的影响;④吸附机理、吸附动力学等的有关研究.介绍了国内外90Sr、134Cs在河流-沉积物体系的吸附规律研究进展及发展动态.20世纪80年代,国外已开展了90Sr、134Cs在河流-沉积物中吸附规律研究,20世纪90年代以来,90Sr、134Cs在河流-沉积物中吸附行为研究日益受到关注,研究内容主要集中在:①现场河流、沉积物中核素浓度调查;②现场及实验室Kd值测定;③各种因素对Kd值影响研究.目前,我国拟建内陆核电厂排放核素在河流生态系统的行为研究还未开展,其实验方法学、影响因素研究等仍是空白领域,建议尽快开展这方面的研究,为评估内陆核设施放射性排放对生态系统的影响研究提供科学依据.     

底泥腐殖酸在粘土矿物上的吸附特性

考查了从湘江沉积物中分离得到的腐殖酸在各种粘土上的吸附等温线和电子显微形态。在蒙脱土,伊利土,高岭土和湘江沉积物粘土上的吸附等温线在低浓(HA<10mg/l)范围皆可用直线表达,分配系数分别为1.7,1.3,4.3和2.5。底质粘土的吸附方程等于组成它的粘土(伊利土75％和高岭土25%)吸附方程之加合。 在电子显微镜下,湘江腐殖酸呈多孔网状结构和球粒结合的簇状结构两种。它们在伊利土表面分立成簇吸附使之絮凝,或者是多孔网状捕集小粒伊利土起分散作用。高岭土在断裂棱处吸附了较多腐植酸而絮凝成搭接式。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques