森林新近凋落叶溶出DOM的性质及其对菲增溶作用的影响

凋落叶作为森林凋落物的主要组成部分,其溶出的大量有机质也是森林土壤可溶性有机质（DOM）的主要来源之一。研究森林凋落叶溶出DOM对PAHs增溶作用的影响有利于合理预测及评价森林土壤中PAHs的环境行为和生态风险。本研究采集了南亚热带常绿阔叶人工林的4种常见树种--尾叶桉（Eucalyptus urophylla）、木荷（Schima superba）、大叶相思（Acacia auriculiformis）和湿地松（Pinus elliottii）的新近凋落叶为试验材料,研究其DOM含量、组成与性质,对比分析了不同凋落叶DOM对菲的増溶作用及其与DOM性质的相关关系。结果表明,4种凋落叶的可溶性有机碳（DOC）质量分数在C 11.61~36.25 mg·g-1之间,其中尾叶桉的含量最大,湿地松最小。尾叶桉和木荷DOM的主要组分是可溶性糖（SS）和可溶性酚（SP）,两者总C量占DOC的比例超过47%,而大叶相思和湿地松中SS和SP两者总量所占比例均低于30%。另外,4种凋落叶DOM的质量分数（以C计）与其电导率的线性关系图中有明显转折点,说明它们均具有表面活性剂的性质。凋落叶DOM在临界胶束浓度（CMC）之上对菲具有不同程度的増溶作用,其与菲的结合系数（logKDOC）的大小顺序为尾叶桉（3.05 L·kg-1）＞木荷（3.02 L·kg-1）＞大叶相思（2.79 L·kg-1）＞湿地松（2.54 L·kg-1）,这表明尾叶桉和木荷DOM的增溶作用明显高于大叶相思和湿地松DOM。经分析表明,logKDOC与各DOM在254、280 nm处的特征紫外吸光度值（SUV-A254、SUV-A280）及其SS、SP的相对含量均呈显著正相关（p＜0.01）,与A240/A420、A254/A400比值呈显著负相关（p＜0.01）,说明DOM的芳香化程度越高,分子量越大, SS与SP所占比例越高,其对菲的増溶效果越明显。     

福建漳江口4种红树植物叶片碳氮磷化学计量及养分重吸收特征

以福建漳江口红树林的秋茄(Kandelia candel)、桐花树(Aegiceras corniculatum)、白骨壤(Avicennia marina)和木榄(Bruguiear gymnorrhiza)为研究对象,对其成熟叶和衰老叶的C、N、P含量、生态化学计量比及重吸收效率进行分析,探讨不同树种养分限制格局及养分高效利用策略,结果显示:(1)成熟叶C、N、P含量范围分别为483.57-568.87、8.53-26.15、0.74-1.56g/kg,衰老叶为441.33-512.67、2.59-8.93、0.28-0.74g/kg,表现为成熟叶衰老叶;成熟叶的C:N、C:P、N:P变化范围为21.11-69.39、310.96-735.87、11.11-34.86,衰老叶为49.51-207.42、563.03-1 878.98、7.20-11.38,成熟叶C:N、C:P小于衰老叶(白骨壤的C:P除外),而成熟叶N:P大于衰老叶,4种红树植物C、N、P含量和化学计量比差异均达显著水平(P 0.05);成熟叶片C:N:P比范围为311:12:1-736:35:1,衰老叶为563:11:1-1 879:9:1;(2)N重吸收效率(NRE)范围为47.97%-84.64%,表现为木榄秋茄白骨壤桐花树;P重吸收效率(PRE)范围为18.39%-76.81%,表现为木榄秋茄桐花树白骨壤;4种红树植物N重吸收效率均大于P;(3)相关分析表明,NRE与成熟叶的C:N和C:P显著负相关(P 0.05),PRE与成熟叶P含量极显著正相关(P 0.01)、与成熟叶C:P极显著负相关(P 0.01).成熟叶片N:P阈值(14)指示秋茄、桐花树和木榄生长受N限制,白骨壤生长受P限制,受N限制的秋茄、桐花树和木榄具有较高的NRE,而受P限制的白骨壤并不具有较高PRE.综上可知,高效的NRE是红树植物适应低N环境的重要养分利用策略,而红树植物可能采取其他适应机制来响应低P胁迫.(表5参38)     

红树种植–养殖耦合系统牡蛎石油烃含量及红树净化效果

为减少滩涂养殖中的石油烃污染危害、提高水产品的品质,以珠江口滩涂红树林种植–养殖系统耦验示范研究基地A、B两系统的7个红树种植–养殖塘[包括桐花树(Aegiceras corniculatum)、木榄(Bruguiera gymnorhiza)、秋茄(Kandelia candel)、红海榄(Rhizophora stylosa)的单种或组合种植]为对象,采用荧光分光光度法监测了水体、底质及吊养的近江牡蛎(Ostrea rivularis)肉质的石油烃含量.结果表明,牡蛎体内石油烃含量在11.10~29.3 mg/kg之间;与水体中石油烃含量呈正相关(r=0.88),牡蛎能很好地指示水体水质状况.单种或组合种植秋茄、桐花树、木榄、红海榄4种红树植物能有效降低水体石油烃含量,与对照相比降幅为50%~80%;使牡蛎的石油烃含量受到不同程度的影响,与对照相比,红树种植塘牡蛎石油烃含量降幅在20%~60%不等.木榄和桐花树种植塘中,牡蛎中石油烃平均含量分别为11.20 mg/kg、14.13 mg/kg,能达到无公害水产品标准.因此红树种植–养殖塘具有"种植岛基质–红树植物–微生物"的协同效应,通过物理、化学和生物的共同作用降低了水体石油烃的含量,从而提高了养殖生物的品质.     

西南地区马尾松与乡土阔叶树种凋落叶混合分解过程中的细菌群落特征

林地内凋落叶的种类和比例调控其分解过程中微生物的群落结构。然而,不同树种组合以及不同混合比例的凋落叶在分解过程中细菌群落结构有何差异,目前尚不清楚。将马尾松与乡土阔叶树种香椿[Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) Roem.]、香樟（Cinnamomum camphora Linn.）和檫木（Sassafras tzumu Hemsl.）凋落叶按照不同树种、不同质量比例混合后,通过Illumina Mi Seq高通量测序研究凋落叶分解过程中细菌群落结构的动态变化特征。结果表明,在所有处理中,Proteobacteria和Actinobacteria均为优势门,Sphingomonas,unidentified＿Rhizobiaceae,Bradyrhizobium和unidentified＿Cyanobacteria为优势菌属。此外,混合凋落叶中细菌的多样性和丰富度在分解250 d后表现出较强的协同效应（分别为70.97%和29.03%）;第2年分解期内大部分混合凋落叶的观测值-期望值<0,尤其是分解末期（分解604 d）后有19.35%的混合凋落叶的细菌多样性指数...     

广西英罗港不同红树林群落土壤CO2和CH4通量对气温变化的响应

采用WEST-1011便携式土壤通量测量仪对广西北海英罗港自然保护区不同红树植物群落土壤的CO2和CH4排放通量特征以及其与气温的关系进行研究。结果表明,各群落土壤CH4通量的值都较小,在-2~3μmol.m-2.s-1之间;红海榄Rhizophora stylosa群落、木榄Brugiera gymmonhiza群落一天的CO2通量变化很小,秋茄Kandelia candel群落一天的CO2通量变化比较明显,最大值出现在19：00,为5.001μmol.m-2.s-1,桐花树Aegiceras corniculatum群落一天的CO2通量变化明显,最大值出现在11：00,为8.325μmol.m-2.s-1。排放通量与气温做相关性研究发现,气温与红海榄群落、木榄群落土壤CH4通量与气温呈不显著的正相关关系,与秋茄群落呈现极其显著的负相关关系,与桐花树群落呈显著的负相关关系;气温与红海榄群落、木榄群落、秋茄群落、桐花树群落的土壤CO2通量均呈不显著的负相关关系。     

外源性氮和磷添加对马尾松凋落叶分解及土壤特性的影响

研究外源性氮和磷对马尾松(Pinus massoniana)凋落叶分解速率、分解过程中N、P、K含量变化及马尾松林地土壤生化特性的影响,为阐明外源性氮和磷对凋落叶分解土壤养分的影响及为森林养分管理提供科学依据。采用尼龙网袋分解法,在广东马尾松林内建立4块5 m×5 m的小样地,放置凋落叶样品,测定其分解速率和N、P、K含量变化。结果表明,施N对马尾松凋落叶的分解有抑制作用,施P及N+P对凋落物的分解速率有不同程度的促进,其中施P处理的分解最快;分解24个月后,对照,施N、P和N+P的马尾松纯凋落叶分解率分别为90%,74%、98%和97%。施N、P和N+P的马尾松林地凋落叶N含量显著大于凋落叶的初始N含量,分解24个月后各处理凋落叶的N含量分别增加了18%、34%、23%和38%;各处理凋落叶P含量在分解过程中呈现上升的趋势,分解24个月后凋落叶的P含量分别显著增加了27%、21%、163%和144%,P和N+P处理的凋落叶P含量上升幅度大;而凋落叶K含量无明显变化规律。施N和N+P显著增加了土壤的全P和有效P含量,增量分别为4%、14%和23%、222%;加P显著增加土壤了全P、全K和有效P含量,增量分别为18%、6%和277%。施N、施P和施N+P 3种处理显著增加了土壤细菌、真菌和放线菌数量,加P提高了脲酶、磷酸酶及过氧化氢酶活性,增量分别为11%、17%和16%,施N+P提高了磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性,增量分别为7%和2%。综上所述,施N抑制马尾松凋落叶的分解,而施P及N+P促进凋落物的分解。在马尾松林施用P肥可以促进凋落叶的分解和养分循环。     

季节性冻融期间土壤动物对高山草甸两种凋落叶木质素降解的影响

高山草甸冻融季节强烈的冻结作用和频繁的冻融循环可促进凋落叶木质素降解,进而影响凋落叶分解及其相关的物质循环过程,但严酷环境下仍然活跃的土壤动物是否具有明显的作用尚无定论.因此,以高山草甸代表性植物黄花亚菊(Ajania nubigena)和黑褐苔草(Carex atrofusca)凋落叶为研究对象,采用不同孔径凋落叶袋排除土壤动物的方法,探讨冬季不同冻融时期(冻结前期、冻结期和融化期)土壤动物对凋落叶木质素降解的贡献.结果显示,整个季节性冻融期间,土壤动物对凋落叶中木质素的降解具有明显的贡献.土壤动物作用的凋落叶木质素降解率(Cfau)为19.41%(黄花亚菊凋落叶)和2.02%(黑褐苔草凋落叶),总贡献率(Pfau)为32.47%(黄花亚菊凋落叶)和2.33%(黑褐苔草凋落叶).然而不同时期土壤动物具有不同程度的影响.相对于其他时期,冻结初期土壤动物作用于黑褐苔草凋落叶木质素降解率最大(13.59%),而融化期最小(-0.27%).与黑褐苔草不同,融化期土壤动物作用于黄花亚菊凋落叶木质素降解率最大(17.59%),而在冻结期最小(-5.12%).土壤动物作用于凋落叶木质素的降解率和贡献率均与负积温显著正相关(P0.05),与凋落叶初始质量无显著相关性.可见,高寒草甸土壤动物在严酷的冬季环境下仍然对凋落叶木质素降解具有积极的作用,但相对于凋落叶质量,温度及其相关冻融环境的改变对土壤动物作用于木质素降解过程的影响更大.     

五爪金龙凋落叶腐解物的化感潜力研究

采用莴苣种子为受体,测试了五爪金龙凋落叶早期腐解物的化感作用,并与其鲜叶及凋落叶的化感潜力进行了比较分析。结果如下:凋落叶40d的腐解物、鲜叶及凋落叶的水提取液均具有较强的化感潜力,并表现出低促高抑的浓度效应,在FW0.1g﹒mL-1高质量浓度下的综合化感抑制强度为凋落叶未能加土壤的腐解物>鲜叶>凋落叶加土壤的腐解物>凋落叶,而在FW0.005g﹒mL-1低质量浓度下的综合化感促进作用是凋落叶>鲜叶>凋落叶加土壤的腐解物>凋落叶未加土壤的腐解物。鲜叶的抑制强度较凋落叶的大,表明叶片在衰老过程中抑制作用减弱。凋落叶未加土壤仅在空气微生物作用下的腐解物抑制作用最强,促进作用最小,而加入土壤后在土壤微生物作用下的腐解物的抑制作用却有所减弱,抑制强度介于鲜叶和凋落叶的之间,促进作用却小于鲜叶和凋落叶,说明凋落叶腐解过程中微生物的参与对化感作用产生了复杂的影响。     

青藏高原东部高寒沙化草地中高山柳凋落叶分解特征的空间异质性

凋落物分解是生态系统碳氮循环的重要环节,为探究青藏高原东部沙化草地中高山柳(Salix cupularis)凋落叶的分解及其对灌木"肥岛"形成的影响,采用分解袋法研究不同大小高山柳灌丛冠幅下不同微位置(茎基周围、冠幅最小半径处、灌丛间裸地)高山柳凋落叶的分解特征.结果表明:(1)分解时间显著影响高山柳凋落叶分解及养分释放过程,随着分解时间延长凋落叶木质素含量无显著变化,凋落叶质量损失率、C和N含量均显著增加(P 0.05),且凋落叶C/N和木质素/N均显著降低(P 0.05).(2)高山柳灌丛冠幅越小,其凋落叶质量损失率越高;且不同微位置下,高山柳凋落叶质量损失率外圈中圈内圈(P 0.05).(3)大冠幅的高山柳下,凋落叶N含量显著高于小冠幅的高山柳(P 0.05),但不同微位置未引起C(总有机碳、纤维素和木质素)和N养分含量变化的显著差异.总之,在高山柳凋落叶分解初期(第一年),高山柳灌丛冠幅大小仅影响其质量和N含量;无论高山柳灌丛冠幅大小如何,不同微位置下高山柳凋落叶养分含量无显著差异,这表明短期内高山柳凋落叶的分解对其"肥岛"的形成可能没有显著贡献.(图4表1参59)     

华山松林凋落物养分释放及土壤生态化学计量特征对模拟氮沉降的短期响应

研究模拟氮(N)沉降下森林生态系统凋落物-土壤C/N/P化学计量特征,对探究在全球气候变化背景下森林生态系统物质循环内在机理具有重要科学意义。以滇中亚高山华山松林(Pinus armandii forest)为研究对象,采用尼龙网袋法于2018年2月—2019年1月在华山松林开展模拟N沉降下凋落叶、枝原位分解试验,分别设置4个N沉降水平:对照CK(N 0g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))、低氮LN(N 5 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))、中氮MN(N 15 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))和高氮HN(N 30 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))。结果表明:华山松林凋落叶和枝C元素均为直接释放模式;凋落叶和枝N元素分别为淋溶-富集-释放和富集-释放模式;凋落叶和枝P元素分别为淋溶-富集-释放和富集-释放模式;凋落叶的C、N、P养分释放速率(40.71%、53.83%、47.06%)均高于凋落枝(20.98%、22.04%、13.15%);各N处理下,凋落叶和枝C释放速率均表现为LNMNCKHN;N沉降总体增加了凋落叶C、N含量,但对P含量无显著影响;N沉降显著降低了凋落叶ω_((C))/ω_((N))和ω_((N))/ω_((P))、凋落枝ω_((C))/ω_((N));凋落叶、枝N、P含量与土壤N、P含量密切相关,土壤P对凋落叶化学计量影响最大,土壤N对凋落枝化学计量影响最大,土壤C对凋落物化学计量影响最小。在短期内N沉降能抑制凋落物分解过程中C、N、P的释放,但对土壤化学计量特征无明显影响,滇中华山松林凋落物分解过程中的化学计量变化特征及养分释放的研究有助于了解森林生态系统对N沉降的响应机理,特别是土壤N、P对凋落物分解的影响将为后续研究的重点内容。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Mitigating the effects of climate change on the nests of sea turtles with artificial irrigation

For sea turtles, like many oviparous species, increasing temperatures during development threaten to increase embryonic mortality, alter offspring quality, and potentially create suboptimal primary sex ratios. Various methods are being implemented to mitigate the effects of climate change on reproductive success, but these methods, such as breeding programs, translocations, and shading, are often invasive and expensive. Irrigation is an alternative strategy for cooling nests that, depending on location, can be implemented relatively quickly and cheaply. However, multiple factors, including ambient conditions, nest substrate, and species characteristics, can influence irrigation success. Additionally, irrigation can vary in duration, frequency, and the volume of water applied to nests, which influences the cooling achieved and embryonic survival. Thus, it is critical to understand how to maximize cooling and manage risks before implementing irrigation as a nest-cooling strategy. We reviewed the literature on nest irrigation to examine whether artificial irrigation is feasible as a population management tool. Key factors that affected cooling were the volume of water applied and the frequency of applications. Embryonic responses varied with species, ambient conditions, and the timing of irrigation during development. Nest inundation was the key risk to a successful irrigation regime. Future irrigation regimes must identify clear targets, either primary or adult sex ratios, that maximize population viability. Monitoring population responses and adjusting the irrigation regime in response to population characteristics will be critical. Most studies reported on the manipulation of only one or two variables, further research is required to understand how altering multiple factors in an irrigation regime influences the cooling achieved and embryonic responses.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Positive and Negative Effects of a Threatened Parrotfish on Reef Ecosystems

Species that are strong interactors play disproportionately important roles in the dynamics of natural ecosystems. It has been proposed that their presence is necessary for positively shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems. We evaluated this hypothesis using the case of the world's largest parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), a globally imperiled species. We used direct observation, animal tracking, and computer simulations to examine the diverse routes through which B. muricatum affects the diversity, dispersal, relative abundance, and survival of the corals that comprise the foundation of reef ecosystems. Our results suggest that this species can influence reef building corals in both positive and negative ways. Field observation and simulation outputs indicated that B. muricatum reduced the abundance of macroalgae that can outcompete corals, but they also feed directly on corals, decreasing coral abundance, diversity, and colony size. B. muricatum appeared to facilitate coral advancement by mechanically dispersing coral fragments and opening up bare space for coral settlement, but they also damaged adult corals and remobilized a large volume of potentially stressful carbonate sediment. The impacts this species has on reefs appears to be regulated in part by its abundance—the effects of B. muricatum were more intense in simulation scenarios populated with high densities of these fish. Observations conducted in regions with high and low predator (e.g., sharks) abundance generated results that are consistent with the hypothesis that these predators of B. muricatum may play a role in governing their abundance; thus, predation may modulate the intensity of the effects they have on reef dynamics. Overall our results illustrate that functionally unique and threatened species may not have universally positive impacts on ecosystems and that it may be necessary for environmental managers to consider the diverse effects of such species and the forces that mediate the strength of their influence. Efectos Positivos y Negativos de un Pez Loro Amenazado Sobre Ecosistemas Arrecifales     

Form-specific fragances fromOphrys insectifera L. (Orchidaceae) attract species of different pollinator genera. Evidence of sympatric speciation?

Two closely related forms ofOphrys insectifera were observed in the field to attract different pollinator species selectively.O. i. ssp.insectifera attracted males of two species ofArgogorytes (Sphecidae, Hymenoptera Aculeata) andO. i. ssp.aymoninii attractedAndrena combinata males (Andrenidae, Apoidea, Hymenoptera Aculeata). A third form,O. aff.i. ssp.insectifera, attracted none of these three species. Volatile compounds from flowers and inflorescences of the three forms (originating from Öland, Sweden, and Aveyron, France) were collected, using entrainment, enfleurage, and solvent extraction techniques, and identified by gas chromatography — mass spectrometry. Scent differences between the three forms were confirmed in the amounts of aliphatic hydrocarbons (C₁₁–C₁₉), methyl esters (C₁₄–C₁₈), short chain aliphatic 1-alcohols (C₆–C₁₂), and monoterpene alcohols (C₁₀).     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.