Disturbance influences oyster community richness and evenness, but not diversity

Foundation species in space-limited systems can increase diversity by creating habitat, but they may also reduce diversity by excluding primary space competitors. These contrasting forces of increasing associate diversity and suppressing competitor diversity have rarely been examined experimentally with respect to disturbance. In a benthic marine community in central California, where native oysters are a foundation species, we tested how disturbance influenced overall species richness, evenness, and diversity. Surprisingly, overall diversity did not peak across a disturbance gradient because, as disturbance decreased, decreases in overall species evenness opposed increases in overall species richness. Decreasing disturbance intensity (high oyster abundance) led to increasing species richness of sessile and mobile species combined. This increase was due to the facilitation of secondary sessile and mobile species in the presence of oysters. In contrast, decreasing disturbance intensity and high oyster abundance decreased the evenness of sessile and mobile species. Three factors likely contributed to this decreased evenness: oysters reduced abundances of primary sessile species due to space competition; oysters supported more rare mobile species; and oysters disproportionately increased the relative abundance of a few common mobile species. Our results highlight the need for further studies on how disturbance can differentially affect the evenness and richness of different functional groups, and ultimately how these differences affect the relationship between overall diversity and ecosystem function.     

A link between ecological diversity indices and measures of biodiversity

The practice of environmental planning and protection frequently necessitates the quantification of ecological diversity. Traditional ‘ecological diversity indices’ are based on the abundances of species present. However, such indices are insensitive to taxonomic or similar differences. With equal species abundances they measure the species richness (species number) only. Conversely, so-called ‘biodiversity indices’ are based on species differences, but are insensitive to the abundance conditions. The quadratic entropy index is the only ecological diversity index, the value of which reflects both the differences ‘and’ abundances of the species. When a species list is given without abundance data, then, using the quadratic entropy index and postulating equal abundances, one gets the only biodiversity index derived from a traditional ecological index of diversity. Its extensive form is identical with the sum of differences or distances between the species present. This index trivially satisfies set monotonicity, an important property for biodiversity indices.     

Relationships between species richness, evenness, and abundance in a southwestern savanna

Species richness and evenness are components of biological diversity that may or may not be correlated with one another and with patterns of species abundance. We compared these attributes among flowering plants, grasshoppers, butterflies, lizards, summer birds, winter birds, and rodents across 48 plots in the grasslands and mesquite-oak savannas of southeastern Arizona. Species richness and evenness were uncorrelated or weakly negatively correlated for each taxonomic group, supporting the conclusion that richness alone is an incomplete measure of diversity. In each case, richness was positively correlated with one or more measures of abundance. By contrast, evenness usually was negatively correlated with the abundance variables, reflecting the fact that plots with high evenness generally were those where all species present were about equally uncommon. Therefore richness, but not evenness, usually was a positive predictor of places of conservation value, if these are defined as places where species of interest are especially abundant. Species diversity was more positively correlated with evenness than with richness among grasshoppers and flowering plants, in contrast to the other taxonomic groups, and the positive correlations between richness and abundance were comparatively weak for grasshoppers and plants as well. Both of these differences can be attributed to the fact that assemblages of plants and grasshoppers were numerically dominated by small subsets of common species (grasses and certain spur-throated grasshoppers) whose abundances differed greatly among plots in ways unrelated to species richness of the groups as a whole.     

冀北山区森林群落草本多样性及其与地形关系研究

通过野外调查取样,应用Menhinick丰富度指数、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数研究了冀北山区12种典型森林群落内的草本植物多样性规律,并采用典范对应分析（CCA）方法研究其分布与地形的关系。结果表明：不同的群落类型草本植物的组成和多样性指数不同,山杨（Populus davidiana）纯林的种数最多为34种,黑桦（Betula dahurica Pall）纯林的种数最少为19种,其Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数最高,分别为0.927 3和2.879 6;在1 200～1 700 m之间,随海拔升高物种多样性指数、均匀度指数和丰富度指数呈正相关性,但没有线性上升的趋势关系;选取的地形因子对样点草本的影响程度大小为：坡向〉海拔〉坡度〉坡位〉坡形,坡向是样点草本植物空间差异的最主要地形制约因子,环境解释率为98.7%,证明排序可信。     

Spatio-temporal patterns in the diversity of demersal fish communities off the south coast of South Africa

The diversity of ecological communities has been the focus of many studies. Because biodiversity provides several indicators used in an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) to track changes in fish communities, we investigated the spatial and temporal patterns in the diversity of some demersal fish communities subjected to varying fishing pressure. Depth and catch rate were the most important predictors in explaining changes in diversity followed by longitude and survey year. Diversity, as measured by the various indices except for taxonomic distinctness (∆*), initially declined with increasing depth to about a depth of 80 m, then increased to about 150 m after which it declined. Taxonomic distinctness index (∆*) showed an increase in the taxonomic heterogeneity of the demersal community below the 300-m isobath. Diversity remained relatively constant with increase in longitude to around 24°E (which has the lowest diversity) after which it increased. The assessment of the temporal trend in diversity indicates that survey year has a significant effect on all diversity indices except for ∆*. Diversity increased and dominance declined with time. This may be result of a decline in the abundance of dominant species or an increase in the abundance less dominant species, or a combination of both effects. Multivariate analysis of the set of diversity indices showed three groups of indices: those reflecting species richness (S, Margalef’s d), those measuring mainly taxonomic relatedness (∆*), and those balancing the richness and evenness components of diversity (J′, H′, λ, ∆, Hill’s N1, and Hill’s N2). The relationship between evenness, catch rate, and size was also investigated. Size classes with highest evenness were found to have lowest catch rate and vice versa. This highlights the need to consider the size and trophic level of species when linking diversity to the functioning of ecosystems.     

威海市区黑松林群落的物种多样性特征

用3个丰富度指数、2个多样性指数和3个均匀度指数对威海市区11个黑松林群落多样性进行研究,并用相关分析研究了这些指数间的关系,结果表明:(1)黑松混交林群落的丰富度和多样性均高于黑松纯林群落,但均匀度却无此规律;(2)生境最优的黑松+刺槐+麻栎林(位于仙姑顶的样地11)在11个样地中的物种多样性表现最好,丰富度、多样性和均匀度都最大.而生境最差的位于火炬大厦的黑松纯林(样地2)群落的丰富度和多样性指数都最小;(3)除样地2外,其余样地群落的草本层丰富度和多样性都最大,灌木层次之,乔木层最小,均匀度无此规律;(4)3个丰富度指数之间、2个多样性指数之间以及两个Pielou均匀度指数之间存在极显著的相关性,但Alatalo均匀度指数和其它7个指数之间相关性都不显著,同时对8个物种多样性指数进行比较后发现丰富度指数中Patrick指数(S)最优,而多样性指数中Shannon-Wiener(H)最优,均匀度指数中以H为基础计算出的Pielou(JH)指数最优.     

外来入侵植物紫茎泽兰对植物多样性的影响

采用样方法调查了云南省和四川省5个受紫茎泽兰入侵的样地中草本植物和灌木的种类和数量,分析了其物种丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数.结果表明,5个样地采得本地植物87种,其中常见本地植物32种,隶属19科31属.紫茎泽兰入侵造成5种生境条件下物种丰富度指数下降显著或极显著.除样地d外,其他样地紫茎泽兰入侵的样方Simpson多样性指数和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数下降显著或极显著.而紫茎泽兰入侵对Pielou均匀度指数的影响则没有表现出明显的规律.不同生境条件下,植物群落的季节变化有所不同,以一年生草本植物为主的群落,其多样性指数和均匀度指数下降趋势较以多年生草本植物和灌木为主的群落更为明显.     

重庆四面山杉木群落物种多样性研究

通过对重庆四面山杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)林样地的调查,运用丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Simpson多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数,分析了该地区杉木群落物种多样性特征,将该地区现存杉木群落划分为2个群系组(杉木林和杉木针阔混交林),8个群系,10个群丛。结果表明,杉木群落可分为乔木层、灌木层和草本层。在杉木林群系组中,丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数均表现为灌木层>草本层>乔木层。在杉木针阔混交林群系组中,丰富度指数表现为灌木层>乔木层>草本层;多样性指数多数表现为灌木层>乔木层>草本层;均匀度指数变化较为复杂,没有统一规律。杉木群落各层的丰富度指数随海拔高度的升高总体上呈下降趋势。群落各层的多样性指数随海拔高度的升高在特定区间内表现出一定规律性:在海拔1180m以下低海拔区域,随海拔高度的升高呈下降趋势;在海拔1180～1351m范围内,随海拔高度的升高呈波动状态;而在海拔1351m以上高海拔区域,又呈下降趋势。群落各层的均匀度指数随海拔梯度变化较为复杂,未表现出明显规律。     

Spatial statistics for modeling of abundance and distribution of wildlife species in the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya

This study illustrates the use of modern statistical procedures for better wildlife management by addressing three key issues: determination of abundance, modeling of animal distributions and variability of diversity in space and time. Prior information in Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods is used to improve estimates of abundance. Measures of autocorrelation are included when modeling distributions of animal counts, and a diversity index to indicate species abundance and richness for large herbivores is developed. Data from the Masai Mara ecosystem in Kenya are used to develop and demonstrate these procedures. The new abundance estimates are up to 35% more accurate than those obtained by existing methods. Significant temporal changes in spatial patterns are found from a space-time analysis of elephant counts over a 20-year period, with strong interactions over 5 km and 6 months space and time separations, respectively. The new diversity index is sensitive to both high abundance and species richness and is also able to capture year to year variation. It indicates an overall marginal decrease in diversity for large herbivores in the Mara ecosystem. The space-time analyses and diversity index can easily be computed thereby providing tools for rapid decision making.     

上海大莲湖水域浮游植物群落结构特征及水质评价

分别于2009年春、夏、秋、冬4季对上海大莲湖水域浮游植物和水质进行了4次采样调查,应用Pielou均匀度指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Margalef物种丰富度指数及优势度等指标分析了不同季节大莲湖水域浮游植物的群落结构特征;并结合理化指标,对大莲湖水域的水体营养状况进行了综合评价。结果表明,大莲湖水域检出浮游植物共计7门40属64种,其中,以绿藻门种类数最多,其次是蓝藻门和硅藻门;浮游植物密度变化范围为0.35×106~10.87×106L-1;浮游植物优势种季节性变化明显,优势种种类较多,为9~14种,优势度不高,变化范围为0.02~0.60。依据浮游植物密度、优势种等群落结构特征评价得出,大莲湖水域水质介于中营养化至富营养化状态之间;由Pielou均匀度指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数及Margalef物种丰富度指数得出的评价结果差异较大,其中利用Pielou均匀度指数获得的评价结果与依据理化指标、浮游植物密度及优势种获得的评价结果基本一致,说明该指数适用于大莲湖水域水体营养状态的评价。     

长江三峡库区马尾松林群落的初步研究

马尾松林是三峡库区主要植被组成之一。实地调查表明： 目前三峡库区马尾松林可分为２１ 个群落类型;群落成层现象明显,可分为乔木层、灌木层和草本层;物种丰富度、多样性、均匀度在群落梯度上的分布规律均为：草本层＞ 灌木层＞ 乔木层;在海拔梯度上的分布无规律性。     

Changes in Species Abundance, Distribution, and Diversity in a Central European Bird Community

We analyzed possible causes of changes in species abundance, range size, and diversity as well as extinctions and colonizations in a central European bird community. Using data from the semiquantitative "Lake Constance" breeding bird atlas, we demonstrated that changes in regional abundances from 1980–1981 to 1990–1992 of 151 coexisting bird species were influenced by breeding habitat and migratory status. Significant declines were found in populations of farmland species and long-distance migrants. Farmland species lost parts of their ranges but hardly changed in local abundance in sites where they still occurred. In contrast, declines in long-distance migrants were caused by significant declines in local abundance with only slight loss of occupied range. Regional extinctions and colonizations were predictable from overall population trends. For example, all species that went extinct were either farmland species or long-distance migrants. Avian community composition was influenced by disproportionate declines of abundant species. This led to declines in the total number of breeding pairs and in community biomass and to increases in community evenness, but to only slight declines in species richness. Future conservation efforts in Europe need to focus more on farmland species and on understanding causes for the declines of long-distance migrants.     

旱泉沟流域次生植被不同恢复阶段的多样性特征

采用TWINSPAN和DCA对旱泉沟流域次生植物群落进行了数量分类和排序,将植物群系划分为不同的群落类型,显示出植被群落的分布格局。在此基础上,应用物种丰富度、Simpson优势度指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数分别研究不同植被群落类型物种多样性。通过各种指数对比,得出以下结论：①植被被划分为7个群落类型,代表了植被恢复的不同阶段;②对于特定的研究区域茶树沟,制约植被群落类型、植物种分布格局的主要因素是水分和热量;③从阶段Ⅰ到阶段Ⅶ,Simpson优势度指数,乔木、灌木、草本基本持平,Shannon-Wiener多样性指数为乔木〈灌木〈草本,Pielou均匀度指数,乔木〉草本〉灌木,物种丰富度逐渐升高。群落的物种组成和空间结构逐渐复杂化,并趋于稳定。     

山西关帝山神尾沟植物群落物种多样性与环境关系的研究I．丰富度、均匀度和物种多样性指数

以89个植物群落调查样地数据为基础，运用8个多样性指数对山西关帝山神尾沟物种多样性与环境之间的关系进行了分析.（1）群落总的表现为多样性和均匀度随海拔升高而下降，丰富度从1700m下降到2400m后开始升高；（2）群落不同层次表现为乔木层和灌木层多样性、丰富度和均匀度随海拔升高而下降，草本多样性和均匀度表现为上升趋势，丰富度下降到1900m后开始上升；（3）乔灌草三者多样性和丰富度指数值以及变化幅度都表现为草本层>灌木层>乔木层，三者均匀度相差不大；（4）群落不同坡向表现为阳坡多样性和丰富度都大于阴坡，均匀度相差不大.图6参7     

喀斯特山地草地植物群落物种数量特征及多样性分析

选择贵州典型喀斯特山地草地植物群落为研究对象,采用标准样地调查法,对不同海拔、坡向的植物群落数量特征、物种特性、以及物种丰富度、多样性、均匀性等特征展开研究,结果表明,（1）喀斯特山地草地植物群落密度随海拔升高呈显著增加趋势（F=20.600;P≤0.01）。植物群落中矛叶荩草（Arthraxon lanceolatus）和扭黄茅（Heteropogon contortus）种群在数量上占优势,同时矛叶荩草和扭黄茅种群密度随海拔升高呈现出增加趋势;但矛叶荩草种群密度在群落中的比例呈现出下降趋势,而扭黄茅种群密度在群落中的比例呈现出升高趋势。（2）喀斯特山地草地植物群落以禾本科（Gramineae）、菊科（Compositae）、蔷薇科（Rosaceae）、唇形科（Labiatae）为主;其中禾本科植物种类比例随海拔升高呈现出下降趋势,而菊科、蔷薇科、唇形科植物种类比例呈现出升高趋势。（3）喀斯特山地草地植物群落丰富度指数随海拔升高呈现出增加趋势,Simpson多样性指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数随海拔升高呈现先降后升趋势,Peilow均匀性指数随海拔升高呈现下降趋势。     

金沙江流域干热河谷草地群落物种数量及多样性特征

选择金沙江干流及支流小江干热河谷典型草地,采用标准样地调查法,对其上游、中游、下游以及支流干热河谷草地植物群落数量特征、物种特性、以及物种丰富度、多样性、均匀度等特征等开展研究,结果表明,①金沙江干热河谷草地植物群落密度自上游至下游显著增加（F=5.226;P≤0.01）。金沙江干流河谷内植物分布受经向的影响较大,纬向对河谷内植物群落影响较小,河谷间影响较大。草地植物群落中扭黄茅（Heteropogon contortus）种群在数量上占优势,同时扭黄茅种群密度沿着河谷走向逐渐增加,但在群落中的比例逐渐降低。②金沙江干流及支流小江东川干热河谷草地植物群落以禾本科（Gramineae）、豆科（Leguminosae）、莎草科（Cyperaceae）、菊科（Compositae）为主。③金沙江干热河谷草地植物群落丰富度分析发现,群落丰富度指数自上游至下游逐渐降低。Simpson多样性指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数及Peilow均匀性指数自上游至下游逐渐升高。     

The invasibility of marine algal assemblages: role of functional diversity and identity

The emergence of the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning debate in the last decade has renewed interest in understanding why some communities are more easily invaded than others and how the impact of invasion on recipient communities and ecosystems varies. To date most of the research on invasibility has focused on taxonomic diversity, i.e., species richness. However, functional diversity of the communities should be more relevant for the resistance of the community to invasions, as the extent of functional differences among the species in an assemblage is a major determinant of ecosystem processes. Although coastal marine habitats are among the most heavily invaded ecosystems, studies on community invasibility and vulnerability in these habitats are scarce. We carried out a manipulative field experiment in tide pools of the rocky intertidal to test the hypothesis that increasing functional richness reduces the susceptibility of macroalgal communities to invasion. We selected a priori four functional groups on the basis of previous knowledge of local species characteristics: encrusting, turf, subcanopy, and canopy species. Synthetic assemblages containing one, two, three, or four different functional groups of seaweeds were created, and invasion by native species was monitored over an eight-month period. Cover and resource availability in the assemblages with only one functional group showed different patterns in the use of space and light, confirming true functional differences among our groups. Experimental results showed that the identity of functional groups was more important than functional richness in determining the ability of macroalgal communities to resist invasion and that resistance to invasion was resource-mediated.     

Running to stand still: temperature effects on species richness, species turnover, and functional community dynamics

The information on temperature-mediated changes in biodiversity in local assemblages is scarce and mainly addresses the change in species richness. However, warming may have more consistent effects on species turnover than on the number of species. Moreover, very few studies extended the analysis of changes in biodiversity and species composition to questions of associated ecosystem functions such as primary production. Here, we synthesize 4 case studies employing microalgal microcosms within the Aquashift priority program to ask (1) do warming-related shifts in species richness correspond to changes in the rate of biomass production, (2) do similar relationships prevail for evenness, and (3) do warming-related shifts in species turnover stabilize or destabilize biomass production? Two of the four cases are previously unpublished, and for a third case, the link between diversity and functional consequences of temperature was not analyzed before. We found accelerated loss of species with warming in all cases. Biomass production was lower with lower species richness in most cases but increased with lower evenness. Most importantly, the relation between functional and compositional stability was different between cases: More rapid extinction resulted in more variable biomass in 2 cases conducted with a limited species pool, indicating that compositional destabilization relates to functional variability. By contrast, the only experiment with a large species pool (30 species) allowed previously rare species to become dominant in the community and showed more stable biomass at high turnover, indicating that compensatory dynamics (turnover) can promote functional stability. These 4 independent experiments highlight the need to consider both compositional and functional consequences of altered temperature regimes.     

Change in avian functional fingerprints of a Neotropical montane forest over 100 years as an indicator of ecosystem integrity

Ecologically relevant traits of organisms in an assemblage determine an ecosystem's functional fingerprint (i.e., the shape, size, and position of multidimensional trait space). Quantifying changes in functional fingerprints can therefore provide information about the effects of diversity loss or gain through time on ecosystem condition and is a promising approach to monitoring ecological integrity. This, however, is seldom possible owing to limitations in historical surveys and a lack of data on organismal traits, particularly in diverse tropical regions. Using data from detailed bird surveys from 4 periods across more than a century, and morphological and ecological traits of 233 species, we quantified changes in the avian functional fingerprint of a tropical montane forest in the Andes of Colombia. We found that 78% of the variation in functional space, regardless of period, was described by 3 major axes summarizing body size, dispersal ability (indexed by wing shape), and habitat breadth. Changes in species composition significantly altered the functional fingerprint of the assemblage and functional richness and dispersion decreased 35–60%. Owing to species extirpations and to novel additions to the assemblage, functional space decreased over time, but at least 11% of its volume in the 2010s extended to areas of functional space that were unoccupied in the 1910s. The assemblage now includes fewer large-sized species, more species with greater dispersal ability, and fewer habitat specialists. Extirpated species had high functional uniqueness and distinctiveness, resulting in large reductions in functional richness and dispersion after their loss, which implies important consequences for ecosystem integrity. Conservation efforts aimed at maintaining ecosystem function must move beyond seeking to sustain species numbers to designing complementary strategies for the maintenance of ecological function by identifying and conserving species with traits conferring high vulnerability such as large body size, poor dispersal ability, and greater habitat specialization. Article impact statement: Changes in functional fingerprints provide a means to quantify the integrity of ecological assemblages affected by diversity loss or gain.     

Increased primary production shifts the structure and composition of a terrestrial arthropod community

Numerous studies have examined relationships between primary production and biodiversity at higher trophic levels. However, altered production in plant communities is often tightly linked with concomitant shifts in diversity and composition, and most studies have not disentangled the direct effects of production on consumers. Furthermore, when studies do examine the effects of plant production on animals in terrestrial systems, they are primarily confined to a subset of taxonomic or functional groups instead of investigating the responses of the entire community. Using natural monocultures of the salt marsh cordgrass Spartina alterniflora, we were able to examine the impacts of increased plant production, independent of changes in plant composition and/or diversity, on the trophic structure, composition, and diversity of the entire arthropod community. If arthropod species richness increased with greater plant production, we predicted that it would be driven by: (1) an increase in the number of rare species, and/or (2) an increase in arthropod abundance. Our results largely supported our predictions: species richness of herbivores, detritivores, predators, and parasitoids increased monotonically with increasing levels of plant production, and the diversity of rare species also increased with plant production. However, rare species that accounted for this difference were predators, parasitoids, and detritivores, not herbivores. Herbivore species richness could be simply explained by the relationship between abundance and diversity. Using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and analysis of similarity (ANOSIM), we also found significant changes in arthropod species composition with increasing levels of production. Our findings have important implications in the intertidal salt marsh, where human activities have increased nitrogen runoff into the marsh, and demonstrate that such nitrogen inputs cascade to affect community structure, diversity, and abundance in higher trophic levels.