Does improved waste treatment have demonstrable biological benefits?

Since 1972, 10 benthic surveys and 9 static fish bioassays have been conducted to assess the impact of AVTEX Fibers, Inc. effluent on the lower South Fork of the Shenandoah River. AVTEX (formerly FMC Corp.) is a rayon and polyester fibers plant located in Front Royal, Virginia. Benthic samples were taken at four stations, one above and three below the plant discharges. Single surveys in 1972 and 1973 indicated a severe impact on the benthic community along the right side of the river, below the plant, as a result of the channelized effluent. Diversity values (¯d) were low (0–2.42) and numbers of taxa and organisms were reduced. A fish bioassay in 1973 indicated the effluent to be acutely toxic at the 34.5% level (mixture of effluent and river water). In early 1974, FMC Corp. constructed an activated sludge treatment system to reduce BOD and supplement the neutralization and chemical precipitation (zinc hydroxide and liquid-solid separation) facilities that had been used to treat waste waters since 1948. After the new equipment was placed in operation, the previously stressed area became more stable. In 1975 and 1976 the stressed area exhibited greater ¯d values (1.19–3.39) and an increased number of taxa and organisms. Bioassays showed the effluent to be acutely toxic to fish only once since 1973. The major improvements in the effluent were a 70% reduction in BOD₅ and a 60% reduction in the amount of zinc entering the river. Community conditions in 1977 indicated a partial remission of improvement, probably due to drought conditions.The rehabilitation of damaged ecosystems is a process important to all biologists. An important factor in encouraging industry to participate in this activity is evidence that improved waste treatment will often have demonstrable biological benefits rather soon. As data accumulate on the recovery process it may be possible to predict the degree of rehabilitation and time required more precisely.     

Long-Term Biological Monitoring of an Impaired Stream: Synthesis and Environmental Management Implications

The long-term ecological recovery of an impaired stream in response to an industrial facility’s pollution abatement actions and the implications of the biological monitoring effort to environmental management is the subject of this special issue of Environmental Management. This final article focuses on the synthesis of the biological monitoring program’s components and methods, the efficacy of various biological monitoring techniques to environmental management, and the lessons learned from the program that might be applicable to the design and application of other programs. The focus of the 25-year program has been on East Fork Poplar Creek, an ecologically impaired stream in Oak Ridge, Tennessee with varied and complex stressors from a Department of Energy facility in its headwaters. Major components of the long-term program included testing and monitoring of invertebrate and fish toxicity, bioindicators of fish health, fish contaminant accumulation, and instream communities (including periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrate, and fish). Key parallel components of the program include water chemistry sampling and data management. Multiple lines of evidence suggested positive ecological responses during three major pollution abatement periods. Based on this case study and the related literature, effective environmental management of impaired streams starts with program design that is consistent across space and time, but also adaptable to changing conditions. The biological monitoring approaches used for the program provided a strong basis for assessments of recovery from remedial actions, and the likely causes of impairment. This case study provides a unique application of multidisciplinary and quantitative techniques to address multiple and complex regulatory and programmatic goals, environmental stressors, and remedial actions.     

ACUTE RESIDUAL TOXICITY OF SEVERAL DISINFECTANTS IN DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER1

ABSTRACT: This study determined the acute toxicity of waste water disinfected with chlorine, bromine chloride, or ozone. The residual toxicity of effluent dechlorinated with sulfur dioxide was also tested. Toxicity tests were conducted with cyprinid, salmonid, and centrarchid fishes, as well as several species of fresh water macroinvertebrates. Residual chlorine exhibited the greatest toxicity of the disinfectants tested; dechlorination with sulfur dioxide effectively eliminated the toxicity of chlorinated effluent. Residual ozone produced mortality in test animals only under special conditions where subjects were exposed to effluent immediately after it was contacted with ozone, and chlorobrominated effluent was more toxic to salmonids than chlorinated effluent.     

Phytoremediation of dairy effluent by constructed wetland technology

Constructed wetlands are artificial wastewater treatment systems consisting of shallow ponds or channels which have been planted with aquatic plants and which rely upon natural microbial, biological, physical and chemical process to treat wastewater and are gaining acceptance in the recent years as a viable option for the treatment of industrial effluents and removal of toxic components. In this study, an attempt was made to compare the efficiency of aquatic macrophytes like Typha sp., Eichhornia sp., Salvinia sp., Pistia sp., Azolla sp. and Lemna sp. to treat the effluents from dairy factory, under laboratory conditions in constructed wetlands. The biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand of dairy effluent were reduced up to 65.4–83.07% and 70.4–85.3%, respectively, after treatment with constructed wetland technology.     

A COMPARISON OF METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION OF BIOLOGICAL EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT: Rapid biological information systems using aquatic organisms to monitor water and waste water quality have only recently begun to develop technologically for practical on-site applications. One approach which has been demonstrating its feasibility recently monitors the ventilatory behavior of fish to assess, for example, the quality of drinking water supplies and industrial waste water discharges. A comparison of the basic strategies of the various biological monitoring systems making use of this concept is presented. In addition, the applications and potential utilization of these systems are discussed.     

Assessing the application of an additive model to estimate toxicity of a complex effluent

A number of industries monitor levels of chemicals in their effluent, but few have undertaken prolonged biological monitoring of this wastewater. The focus of the present study was to determine whether past chemical data for effluent from a lead smelter could be used to estimate its past toxicity. Since the interactive effects of metals in effluents are often assumed to be additive, it was hypothesized that an additive model, 100/[sigma(metal concentration in effluent/EC50 for individual metal)], could be used to generate an EC50 from chemical data (where EC50 is the concentration of test material that affects 50% of the test organisms). To test the approach, a larval development toxicity test with the marine polychaete, Galeolaria caespitosa, was used to test 26 separate samples of effluent from a lead smelter, generating empirical EC50 values. EC50 values for each individual metal in the effluent were also generated using the larval development toxicity test. The concentrations of trace metals in each effluent sample were determined and, using the additive model, EC50 values were calculated. For the majority of effluent samples tested, the additive model underestimated toxicity, suggesting the presence of additional unidentified contaminants in the effluent samples. Additionally, a nonlinear rather than linear regression curve was found to best describe the relationship between the model and empirically derived EC50 values. This relationship was then used to estimate past trends in toxicity of the smelter effluent. Forty-eight percent of the variability in measured toxicity was explained by the model, with the model underestimating toxicity in the majority of samples.     

废钻井液对环境污染及固化处理室内研究

目前我国许多油田钻井井场位于稻田、麦田、虾池和鱼塘周围，而废钻井液中含有无机盐、重金属组分、油品及大量有机聚合物，其中有些是有害物质，一口井的废钻井液一般可达200～300m~3。这些废钻井液堆放在井场不进行处理会对周围环境造成较大污染。为此，如何处理这些废钻井液是目前令人极为关心的课题。本文分析了我国一些油田废钻井液的毒性；介绍了毒性提取、评价方法及其对土壤、植物和海洋生物的影响，同时重点介绍用化学固化方法处理废钻井液的结果。通过对现场的5个废钻井液的固化处理室内试验证实，废钻井液固化后有一定强度，其水浸出液清彻透明，达到排放标准，固化体可进行掩埋恢复地貌，也可作为建筑材料使用。     

Chemical industry wastewater treatment

Treatment of chemical industrial wastewater from building and construction chemicals factory and plastic shoes manufacturing factory was investigated. The two factories discharge their wastewater into the public sewerage network. The results showed the wastewater discharged from the building and construction chemicals factory was highly contaminated with organic compounds. The average values of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were 2912 and 150 mgO₂/l. Phenol concentration up to 0.3 mg/l was detected. Chemical treatment using lime aided with ferric chloride proved to be effective and produced an effluent characteristics in compliance with Egyptian permissible limits. With respect to the other factory, industrial wastewater was mixed with domestic wastewater in order to lower the organic load. The COD, BOD values after mixing reached 5239 and 2615 mgO₂/l. The average concentration of phenol was 0.5 mg/l. Biological treatment using activated sludge or rotating biological contactor (RBC) proved to be an effective treatment system in terms of producing an effluent characteristic within the permissible limits set by the law. Therefore, the characteristics of chemical industrial wastewater determine which treatment system to utilize. Based on laboratory results engineering design of each treatment system was developed and cost estimate prepared.     

Production of vermifertilizer from guar gum industrial wastes by using composting earthworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perionyx sansibaricus</Emphasis> (Perrier)

Efforts have been made to convert the guar gum industrial waste into a value-added product, by employing a new earthworm species for vermicomposting e.g. Perionyx sansibaricus (Perrier) (Megascolecidae), under laboratory conditions. Industrial lignocellulosic waste was amended with other organic supplements (saw dust and cow dung); and three types of vermibeds were prepared: guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 40: 30: 30 ratio (T₁), guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 60: 20: 20 ratio (T_2,), and guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 75: 15: 10 ratio (T₃). As compared to initial concentrations, vermicomposts exhibited a decrease in organic C content (5.0–11.3%) and C:N ratio (11.1–24.4%) and an increase in total N (18.4–22.8%), available P (39.7–92.4%), and exchangeable K (9.4–19.7%) contents, after 150 days of vermicomposting. A vermicomposting coefficient (VC) was used to compare of vermicomposting with the experimental control (composting). P. sansibaricus exhibited maximum value of mean individual live weight (742.8 ± 21.1 mg), biomass gain (442.94 ± 21.8 mg), growth rate (2.95 ± 0.15 mg day⁻¹), cocoon numbers (96.0 ± 5.1) and reproduction rate (cocoons worm⁻¹ day⁻¹) (0.034 ± 0.001) in T₂ treatment. In T₃ maximum mortality (30.0 ± 4.01 %) in earthworm population was observed. Overall, T₂ vermibed appeared as an ideal substrate to manage guar gum industrial waste effectively. Vermicomposting can be proposed as a low-input basis technology to convert industrial waste into value-added biofertilizer.     

IMPLEMENTATION OF ACUTE CRITERIA FOR CONSERVATIVE SUBSTANCES1

ABSTRACT: Acute criteria are assigned to the fish and wildlife propagation beneficial use in Oklahoma's water quality standards. Dye studies are analyzed to show that these criteria can be implemented through acute regulatory mixing zones. Acute regulatory mixing zones may be defined as areas in receiving streams where acute numerical criteria may be exceeded without causing acute toxicity. Acute regulatory mixing zones are used to obtain acute waste load allocations. If effluent loading does not exceed acute waste load allocation, acute criteria exceedance is confined to the acute regulatory mixing zone and there is no acute toxicity in the receiving stream. Waste load allocations for acute and chronic criteria are compared to determine which is appropriate to develop permit limits for the dye studies.     

FACTORS INFLUENCING ACUTE TOXICfrY OF COAL ASH TO RAINBOW TROUT (SALMO GAIRDNERI) AND BLUEGILL SUNFISH (LEPOMIS MACROCHIRUS)1

ABSTRACT: The potentially toxic components in coal ash (ash particles, heavy metals) were evaluated in laboratory static, acute (96 hr) bioassays, both separately and in various combinations with extreme pH (5.0 and 8.5), using rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and bluegifi sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Ash particle morphology and metal distribution anlaysis, using electron microscopy and surface-subsurface analysis by ion microscopy, showed that metals could be either clumped or evenly distributed on the surface of fly ash. Surface enrichment on fly ash particles from electrostatic precipitators, as measured by ion microscopy, was found for cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, lead, mercury, titanium, arsenic, and selenium. Bottom (heavy) ash was not acutely toxic to either fish species at concentrations of up to 1500 mg/l total suspended solids (TSS) at pH 5.0, 7.5, or 8.5. Fly ash particles were not acutely toxic to blue-gill at levels up to 1360 mg/l TSS. Rainbow trout were highly sensitive to fly ash (25 to 60 percent mortality) at concentrations of 4.3 to 20.5 mg/I TSS when dissolved metal availability was high but were not sensitive at higher particulate concentrations (58 to 638 mg/I TSS) when dissolved metals were low. When metals were acid-leached from fly ash prior to testing, no rainbow trout mortality occurred at TSS concentrations of up to 2,350 mg/l TSS. When the percent of dissolved metal was high (e.g., 50–90 percent of the total), fish mortality was increased. Rainbow trout were nearly two orders of magnitude more sensitive than bluegill when subjected to a blend of cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc. The two species were similar in their acute sensitivity to acidic pH at levels at or below 4.0 and alkaline pH of 9.1. If the pH of coal ash effluent is contained within the range 6.0 to 9.0, acute toxicity to fish can be attributed to trace element availability from fly ash but not heavy ash. Control of holding pond and effluent pH and maximizing pond residence time are important strategies for minimizing effects of ash pond discharges on fish.     

Assessment of the Microbiological Quality of Clarias gariepinus Exposed to an Industrial Effluent in Nigeria

The microbiological impact of a detergent and soap industries effluent on Clarias gariepinus was assessed under laboratory conditions. The heterotrophic bacterial count obtained from fish surfaces ranged from 1.2 × 10²−2.0 × 10²cfu/ml amongst the control, while values of 4.8× 10⁶−8.6 × 10⁶ cfu/ml were obtained for the experimental fish exposed to the industrial effluent (0.025 ppm). The fungal count for the controls ranged from 1.2× 10²−1.2 × 10³ cfu/ml; while a range of 1.0 × 10⁶−2.0 × 10⁶ was obtained for the fish exposed to the industrial effluent. While twelve bacterial species were isolated from the fish exposed to the industrial effluent, only two were isolated from the parts of the control fish used in the study. The bacterial species are those in the genera Staphylococcus, Proteus, Streptococcus, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Enterobacter, and Escherichia. The fungal isolates include Saccharomyces, Aspergillus, Rhodosporium, Candida, Alternaria, and Fusarium. The resistance of the bacterial isolates to the commonly used antibiotics showed that 100% were resistant to Augmentin, Amoxycillin and Cloxacillin, 85.71% to Tetracycline, 80.95% to Cotrimoxazole, 71.43% to Erythromycin, 33.33% to Chloramphenicol, and 28.57% to Gentamicin. Among the eight antibiotics tested, five patterns of multiple drug resistance were obtained, with the number of the antibiotics ranging from 4–8. The public health implications of these observations are discussed.     

Examining the technology acceptance for dismantling of waste printed circuit boards in light of recycling and environmental concerns

The dismantling of printed circuit board assemblies (PCBAs) and the recovery of their useful materials can lead to serious environmental impacts mainly due to their complicated physical structure and the variety of toxic elements contained in their material composition. So far, less attention has been paid to their responsible recycling compared to that of bare printed circuit boards. Combined with other materials recovery process, proper dismantling of PCBAs is beneficial to conserve scarce resources, reuse the components, and eliminate or safely dispose of hazardous materials. In analyzing the generation, resources potential and hazardous risk of scrap PCBAs, technologies used for the dismantling of waste PCBAs have been widely investigated and reviewed from the aspects of both industrial application and laboratory-scale studies. In addition, the feasibility of PCBA dismantling has been discussed, the determinants of which, including the heating conditions and mechanical properties have been identified. Moreover, this paper evaluates the environmental consequences caused by the dismantling of PCBAs.     

工业废水与河流水体对藻类的毒性实验

采用静水式急性毒性和亚急性毒性两种实验方法，分别对5大类共14种工业废水与河流水体进行了抑制斜生栅列藻生长的毒性实验。结果表明，电子类废水对斜生栅列藻的生长影响毒性最大，其次为农药类、化工类、纺织类和食品类。未经处理的废水有急性毒性，部分废水处理后对水生斜生栅列藻仍然存在亚急性致毒因子。实验还发现大多数处理后的废水含氨氮比例较高促进斜生栅列藻的生长，也会导致河流水体富营养化。     

A Preliminary Index of Biotic Integrity for Monitoring the Condition of the Rio Paraiba do Sul,Southeast Brazil

The biodiversity of many Brazilian rivers is seriously threatened by industrial and municipal pollution, and Rio Paraiba do Sul, located between two major industrial centers is one example of this situation. A survey of the fish assemblage was conducted from October 1998 to September 1999 and the data were used to develop an index of biotic integrity (IBI). We sampled three zones in bracketing a large urban–industrial complex to evaluate water quality changes and the usefulness of the IBI as a monitoring tool. Water quality was classified as poor upstream of the effluent discharges, very poor near the discharges, and poor–fair downstream of the discharges, with this latter situation revealing the current biological capacity of the river. Physical and chemical habitat characteristics were also measured at each site to construct an independent environmental index to validate the IBI. The habitat and IBI indices were highly correlated, suggesting this IBI would be applicable to other large rivers in southeast Brazil.     

Understanding Fish Behavior,Distribution, and Survival in Thermal Effluents Using Fixed Telemetry Arrays: A Case Study of Smallmouth Bass in a Discharge Canal During Winter

Advances in telemetry have facilitated the continuous monitoring of fish position and movement. At present, there are few examples where this approach has been applied to environmental monitoring or assessment. Here we 1) present a case study that used a fixed antenna array and continuously scanning coded receiving system to monitor the movement of radio-tagged smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in a thermal discharge canal on Lake Erie during the winter of 1998/1999, and 2) evaluate the use of fixed telemetry arrays for environmental monitoring. Although the number of radiotagged bass in the canal decreased gradually over time, fish spent the majority of the winter in the canal. When in the canal, bass selected areas upstream of the tempering pumps where water was the warmest. This region was also high in habitat complexity, had adequate velocity refuges, and abundant forage. Despite residing in the thermal effluent throughout the winter, none of the fish monitored were observed to participate in reproductive activities in the canal in the Spring. Interestingly, during a biofouling chlorination pulse in May, 50% of radiotagged fish still residing in the canal left and did not return during the monitoring period. Utility infrastructure accessible to fish, including thermal effluents, should be considered as fish habitat and managed accordingly to minimize mortality and sublethal effects on resident and transient fish. Fixed telemetry arrays that permit the continuous monitoring of fish behavior as described in this paper are widely applicable to many issues in environmental management, monitoring, and conservation.     

Waste materials for activated carbon preparation and its use in aqueous-phase treatment: a review

Commercial activated carbon is a preferred adsorbent for the removal of micropollutants from the aqueous phase; however, its widespread use is restricted due to high associated costs. To decrease treatment costs, attempts have been made to find inexpensive alternative activated carbon (AC) precursors, such as waste materials. Some reviews report the use of waste materials for the preparation of AC; however, these studies are restricted to either type of wastes, preparation procedures, or specific aqueous-phase applications. The present work reviews and evaluates literature dedicated both to the preparation of AC by recycling different types of waste materials and also to its application in various aqueous-phase treatments. It is clear that conventional (from agriculture and wood industry) and non-conventional (from municipal and industrial activities) wastes can be used to prepare AC, that can be applied in various aqueous treatment processes, namely to remove organic pollutants, dyes, volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals. Moreover, high surface areas can be obtained using either physical or chemical activation; however, combined treatments might enhance the surface properties of the adsorbent, therefore increasing its adsorption capacity. It is evident from the revision made that AC prepared from both conventional and non-conventional wastes might effectively compete with the commercial ones. This happens mostly when the activation procedures are optimized considering both the raw material used to produce the carbons and the contaminants to be removed.     

Leaching characteristics of copper flotation waste before and after vitrification

Copper flotation waste from copper production using a pyrometallurgical process contains toxic metals such as Cu, Zn, Co and Pb. Because of the presence of trace amounts of these highly toxic metals, copper flotation waste contributes to environmental pollution. In this study, the leaching characteristics of copper flotation waste from the Black Sea Copper Works in Samsun, Turkey have been investigated before and after vitrification. Samples obtained from the factory were subjected to toxicity tests such as the extraction procedure toxicity test (EP Tox), the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) and the "method A" extraction procedure of the American Society of Testing and Materials. The leaching tests showed that the content of some elements in the waste before vitrification exceed the regulatory limits and cannot be disposed of in the present form. Therefore, a stabilization or inertization treatment is necessary prior to disposal. Vitrification was found to stabilize heavy metals in the copper flotation waste successfully and leaching of these metals was largely reduced. Therefore, vitrification can be an acceptable method for disposal of copper flotation waste.     

An intergrated waste survey and environmental effects of COGIDO, a bleached pulp and paper mill in Vietnam, on the receiving waterbody

An integrated investigation on wastewater characterization and the environmental effects from the COGIDO pulp and paper mill in Bien Hoa Industrial Estate, Vietnam, a chlorine bleached soda integrated pulp and paper mill operating without a chemical recovery system, on the receiving water body was conducted during the rainy and dry seasons in 1993 and 1995. The pollution load from the mill was very high in terms of BOD, COD and SS (COD_m: 58.7 t/d; BOD: 33.3 t/d and SS: 25.1 t/d). The effluent toxicity was determined using four toxicity tests: the green micro-alga, Selenastrum capricornutum, Microtox (marine bacteria: Photobacterium phosphoreum), the duckweed, Lemna aequinoctialis, and fish (silver barb: Puntius gonionotus, and Tilapia: Tilapia nilotica). Selenastrum capricornutum was the most sensitive among the tested organisms. The mill toxicity emission rate (TER) was as high as 338 610 (Selenastrum test). The bleaching-pulp and semi-chemical pulp plants which contributed the largest pollution load to the total COGIDO effluent, therefore, were targeted for abatement measures. Physico-chemical parameters as well as qualitative and quantitative aquatic organism composition for the river water were established. The BOD₅ and COD values exceeded the potable surface water standard by a factor of 2 to 4. The species diversity and abundance of the phytoplankton, zooplankton and zoobenthos were found to be lower (20–40%) than that of unpolluted rivers in Vietnam, whereas pollution-indicator species increased up to four times during the dry season 1995.     

Optimizing Liquid Effluent Monitoring at a Large Nuclear Complex

Effluent monitoring typically requires a large number of analytes and samples during the initial or startup phase of a facility. Once a baseline is established, the analyte list and sampling frequency may be reduced. Although there is a large body of literature relevant to the initial design, few, if any, published papers exist on updating established effluent monitoring programs. This paper statistically evaluates four years of baseline data to optimize the liquid effluent monitoring efficiency of a centralized waste treatment and disposal facility at a large defense nuclear complex. Specific objectives were to: (1) assess temporal variability in analyte concentrations, (2) determine operational factors contributing to waste stream variability, (3) assess the probability of exceeding permit limits, and (4) streamline the sampling and analysis regime. Results indicated that the probability of exceeding permit limits was one in a million under normal facility operating conditions, sampling frequency could be reduced, and several analytes could be eliminated. Furthermore, indicators such as gross alpha and gross beta measurements could be used in lieu of more expensive specific isotopic analyses (radium, cesium-137, and strontium-90) for routine monitoring. Study results were used by the state regulatory agency to modify monitoring requirements for a new discharge permit, resulting in an annual cost savings of US $223,000. This case study demonstrates that statistical evaluation of effluent contaminant variability coupled with process knowledge can help plant managers and regulators streamline analyte lists and sampling frequencies based on detection history and environmental risk.