公众参与野生动物保护法治的困境和出路北大核心CSCDCSSCI

在“一路象北”事件中,尽管中国政府和民众对野生亚洲象采取的各种积极保护措施值得世界称赞,但重新审视和科学规划野生动物栖息地应是当务之急,而公众参与法律制度的完善对于野生动物及其栖息地保护意义重大。公众参与野生动物保护立法,能够表达其对野生动物保护及与此相关的公共安全事务的愿望、意见和利益诉求;公众参与野生动物保护执法,可降低行政部门监控违规行为及其影响的成本,并减轻起诉违规者的部分负担;在野生动物保护中引入公益诉讼制度,不仅契合公共利益保护的目标,还能通过确保公众有序开展和参与野生动物保护公益诉讼,弥补现有野生动物保护机制的不足。目前,尽管《野生动物保护法(修订草案)》在风险防范和生物安全保护等方面取得重大进展,但却未对“公众参与”原则与制度的构建给予足够重视。公众参与制度在中国野生动物保护立法、执法、司法等法律运行环节的不完善,一定程度上影响了人与自然的和谐相处、野生动物栖息地的保护及生物多样性的维持。因此,法律应保障公众享有一定的野生动物保护参与权。在立法阶段,应明确法案起草、论证、审议全过程的公众参与,保障公众参与的主体、范围、渠道多元及进行立法前评估,以增强立法权威性;在执法阶段,完善野生动物保护信息公开制度,保障公民举报权并完善中央环保督察制度;在司法阶段,明确规定野生动物保护公益诉讼制度,对社会组织提起的野生动物保护公益诉讼提供法律依据和相关支持。     

建立“绿色发展”的法律机制:长江大保护的“中医”方案

《长江保护法》已列入2019年全国人大常委会立法工作计划并已启动了立法工作。但各方面对《长江保护法》的性质定位、价值取向、制度架构等一些关键问题还缺乏基本共识。按照习近平总书记提出的长江经济带建设需要"中医"方案的理念,《长江保护法》的制定也需要通过对涉及长江经济带建设的各项法律制度进行"体检",发现各种"风寒"症状、找到"经脉"淤堵点、研究"脏腑"调理方,确保出台一部以中医整体观为指引、以"治未病"为价值取向的高质量法律,为实现长江经济带建设的"良法善治"提供基础。本文认为:①已有涉及长江经济带建设的立法涉及多层级、多机关、多法律关系,各种规范的出台背景、价值取向、核心内容、制度体系缺乏协同性,所导致的权利冲突是造成长江经济带生态环境恶化的制度原因,必须妥善解决。②解决现存的权利冲突,需要为长江保护专门立法,而为长江立良法的前提是确定长江保护法的价值取向。习近平总书记提出的"生态优先、绿色发展"目标,应通过法律语言的转换,具体化流域安全、流域公平、流域可持续发展的立法价值取向。③长江保护立法是在一定价值取向指引下对权利义务、权力责任等立法资源的配置过程,从立法技术和方法上,应注重优化立法资源,厘清长江保护法的基本概念,合理借鉴国外经验,明确立法技术路径;按照发展与环境综合决策原则,合理配置政府事权,建立实现"绿色发展"决策体制;建立以实现绿色发展为目标的多元共治机制,广泛鼓励公众参与。     

最严格环境保护制度:现状、经验与政策建议

在总结分析当前我国环境保护制度现状及存在问题的基础上,结合国内外相关经验,提出了建立和完善最严格环境保护制度的政策建议。针对当前生态环境保护中的短板和突出问题,建立和完善最严格的环境保护制度需要围绕生态保护红线目标,加快建立以"源头严防、过程严管、后果严惩"为基础、以"经济调节、公众参与、体制保障"为配套的环境保护制度体系。在源头预防方面,建立符合生态文明建设要求的环境保护目标体系、统计体系与核算制度,建立严格的环境准入制度,将环境质量改善和环境风险可接受水平作为环境影响评价的基本准则等;在过程严管方面,建立能够充分体现地方政府环境保护工作实绩的领导干部政绩评价考核制度、科学严格的环境污染排放标准体系,以及严格监管所有污染物排放的环境监管和行政执法制度体系等;在后果严惩方面,推行党政领导干部生态环境审计和终身责任追究制度,建立生态环境损害赔偿和刑事责任追究制度等;在经济调节方面,建立绿色财税金融制度体系,推动实施排污权有偿使用与交易制度,建立平衡生态产品生产者与受益者利益关系的生态补偿制度等;在公众参与方面,在法律法规中明确公民环境权利,完善保障公众参与环境保护的信息公开与立法听证等制度;在生态环境保护管理体制方面,要从上层建筑入手,理顺生态环境保护管理涉及的顶层重大关系,在中央层面明晰资源、环境和生态三个领域的关系,明确中央和地方财权事权分配,调整环境保护系统内部的管理机构设置。     

流域立法视角下生态流量保障的制度供给--以长江流域为例

生态流量保障的重难点在于流域生态流量不足问题的妥善解决。生态流量不足基于产生的原因可分为“自然型”和“人为型”。“人为型”生态流量不足的根源在于《水法》第4条规定的三生用水关系未得到妥善处理,实质上是水资源分配和管理不合理所致。具体表现为水资源保护理念镶嵌在制度表层、生态流量缺乏核心制度保障、流域规划匮乏强效监督机制、流域水资源分配信息公开不足、末端行政考核制度偏重水质管控、生态用水制度顶层设计与地方实施间落差巨大等。流域立法作为立法体系的中间环节,对上位法具有填补协调功能,对地方立法具有引领指导作用。建议在流域立法过程中,通过制度设计解构流域生态流量保障现存的制度困境,主要包括以下几个方面:一是完成流域特有保护理念到实体制度的转型。二是基于流域生态修复、水资源生态红线管控制度的开展以及有效衔接规划环境影响评价制度的需要,建立生态流量管控指标制度体系不可或缺。三是基于流域规划对三生用水的初始分配性,将生态流量供给纳入流域规划体系中,从水资源分配初始阶段保障生态流量,同时强化流域水资源规划制度的监督机制,健全规划制定的程序性规范,明确科学考察和调查评价人员的构成规则、方式及模式。四是依法加深政府信息公开程度保障公众的知情权、参与权及监督权。五是完善行政考核制度体系强化对生态流量供给的考核。     

中国碳保险法律制度的构建

碳保险与低碳保险、绿色保险、气候保险等不是一个概念。碳保险是以《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《京都议定书》为前提,是基于两个国际条约对碳排放的安排而存在,或是保护在非京都规则中模拟京都规则而产生的碳金融活动的保险。碳金融市场基于人为设计而产生,蕴含巨大风险,现行以《保险法》为核心的保险法律制度体系在面对碳融资、碳交付等碳金融风险时面临诸多困境:很多风险为非传统风险,按我国基于传统风险而设计的《保险法》,多为不可保风险;碳保险合同标的的价值难以确定;我国目前的碳保险制度没有发挥保障碳融资和碳交付的功能;我国碳金融中的一些独特风险亟需碳保险法律制度保障;我国碳保险缺乏生态价值导向作用;现行《保险法》规定财产保险合同中没有受益人这一主体,而受益人主体在碳保险法律制度中至关重要。针对这些困境应该构建碳保险法律制度:在碳保险法律制度构建中引入ART原理;碳保险合同目前可采用定值保险合同形式,从长远来看,一旦碳保险单独立法,则可以规定专业评估机构为保险合同关系人并适当引入定额保险合同;构建国内的"非京都规则"碳交易市场,发挥碳保险应有功能;以碳保险法律制度引导CDM中的技术含量;在碳保险法律制度设计中融入生态价值取向;把受益人作为碳保险合同的关系人。关于立法模式,应该在《保险法》之外另行单独立法,并在保险法中增加援引条款,如碳保险由法律、行政法规另行规定。     

生物经济发展视野下的生物安全问题及其立法对策研究

生物经济是与农业经济、工业经济、信息经济相对应的经济形态,是以生命科学与生物技术研究开发与应用为基础的、建立在生物技术产品和产业之上的经济。生物安全有广义与狭义两种界分。生物经济的发展给生物安全带来了重大挑战。为了应对生物经济发展对生物安全带来的挑战,自20世纪70年代之后,国际社会掀起了一场声势浩大的生命伦理法律化运动,产生了大量旨在应对生物安全问题的国际与国内立法,较为有效地保障了生物经济的健康发展。就其特点而言,域外生物安全法较为侧重对生物经济活动的规制、注意依照风险预防的原则和理念进行相关的制度构建并注意部门立法间的协调与配合。我国也根据维护生物安全的需要制定了相关的立法,但与保障生物经济健康发展的实际需要相比,我国现有的立法还存在明显缺陷,需要采取相应对策加以完善。     

生态流量的法律表达及制度实现

生态流量制度是流域生态环境保护的重要制度保障,是水资源、水环境、水生态“三位一体”保障体系的重要组成部分,是满足水生态承载能力刚性约束的制度体现。目前,水资源开发利用以及水环境污染防治由《水法》以及《水污染防治法》做出了全面规定,而保障水生态功能实现的生态流量则作为水电工程环境影响评价制度的一个因子予以考量,这显然无法达成“维持水体生态功能”之目标。生态流量制度作为保护水生态功能的独立法律制度,应当在涉水立法中予以明确,同时形成完整的生态流量制度体系。基于此,本文对生态流量在立法中的法律表达提出制度建议,包括:①生态流量底线是为了满足流域及其周边区域原有生态系统功能所需要的水流数量以及水文过程的最低要求。生态流量底线制度包括生态流量底线的划定、生态流量监测以及生态流量底线的适应性管理。②流域生态流量协议,是在生态流量底线之上企业与政府达成的更高标准的生态流量约束,是企业与政府合作进行生态环境治理的新模式;是政府、企业、社会共同保障水生态的制度体现;它在公众参与的基础上形成流域规则嵌套,通过绿色水电认证提高企业落实的积极性。③生态流量法律责任制度依据生态流量底线和流域生态流量协议为用水主体设置的不同义务,分别规定了不同的法律责任。违反生态流量底线要求且拒不改正的按日连续处罚,体现出督促企业遵守生态流量底线要求的立法目的;仅违反流域生态流量协议而未突破生态流量底线要求的,则追究其违约责任,撤销其已享受的生态环境优惠,体现对其违背契约精神的惩罚。     

海域资源征收中公共利益界定的立法路径选择

海域征收从法律属性上应属于公益征收行为,公共利益之考量必然成为海域征收中无法回避的前置性问题。"公共利益"是法学研究中的重要概念,无论在学说还是判例上,它一直被作为一般法律所追求的基本目标。尽管我国《宪法》、《物权法》、《海域使用管理法》明确规定海域征收必须始于公共利益之目的,但由于法律对公共利益内涵或范围缺乏明确界定,海域征收实践中又缺失有效的程序规制和司法监督,极易导致相关行政部门在"征海"决策中借公共利益之名谋取海域增值利益、侵害海域使用人合法权益。我国海域征收既缺失对公共利益内涵及其外延范围的具体立法界定,又缺少关于公共利益认定的必要的正当程序规制。因此,在法律层面解决对公共利益语焉不详并辅之以必要程序规制,是从源头上阻断政府部门非法征海、保护海域使用权人合法权益的必要选择。基于我国当前海域征收中公共利益立法界定所存在问题的分析和域外关于公共利益界定立法例的考察,提出完善海域征收中公共利益界定的立法路径:对公共利益内涵化基础上,采取渐进立法方式对公共利益加以类型化以明晰其外延范围;在县级以上人大常委会设立专门征收审查委员会,改变海域征收中公共利益认定主体不清或由行政权主导海域征收中公共利益认定的现状;遵循正当程序要求,确立并完善海域征收公众参与与信息公开制度,建立海域征收决策公正透明的程序化保障机制。二者有机结合、相辅相成,是有效解决当前我国海域征收实践中公共利益界定问题的可行立法路径选择。     

论环境公共决策中风险沟通的法律实现——以预防型环境群体性事件为视角

当前我国环境群体性事件呈高发态势。根据引发事件事实状态的不同可将其分为事前预防型环境群体性事件和事后救济型环境群体性事件。预防型环境群体性事件中公众所抵制的是有关环境风险的决策结果,实质上是在主张环境公共决策过程中认知风险的权利。着眼于预防型环境群体性事件所针对的环境公共决策过程,主要运用理论分析、规范分析、比较分析的方法,从行政决策权的行使与公众参与权利的实现入手,探究环境公共决策无法取得实质合法性的根源,寻求化解之法治路径。当前环境公共决策在结构和程序上呈现出封闭性,与决策结果具有直接利害关系的公众被排除在外,其认知风险的权利得不到有效实现,风险沟通不畅导致社会可接受的风险共识不能形成,环境公共决策无法取得实质合法性,引发预防型环境群体性事件增多。由于环境风险的不确定性特征,环境公共决策中专家的理性地位被动摇,公众参与环境决策的诉求更为强烈,其对风险的认知直接决定了对最终决策结果的认可和接受程度,政府无法独占风险决策地位。在社会层面形成具体风险认知的共识以便决策结果获得普遍的认同和接受成为环境公共决策取得实质合法性的必要条件。化解预防型环境群体性事件,需要在环境公共决策过程中进行有效的风险沟通。为此,环境法应当将公众作为环境决策的合作者,要求决策者主动、全面公开决策所依据的事实和理由,对公众意见给予及时充分的回应,寻求其理解和支持;实现环境信息公开的风险沟通功能;通过程序性的设计促进风险沟通的实现,保障公众参与的有效性。当前有关立法已反映出对风险沟通的重视,但只是萌芽。     

论《环境保护法》的修改与环境法律制度的完善

建立良好、和谐一致的环境法律体系是我国环境法制建设的重要基础。《环境保护法》确立的环境目标责任制、排污收费制度、环境影响评价制度、限期治理制度和公众参与制度等制度已经不能适应新的市场经济体制和科学发展观的要求,需要变革与创新。许多新的行之有效的管理制度亟待上升为法律制度。因此,《环境保护法》扮演着整合性环境立法的角色,修订时应持资源、环境与生态的整体观念。基于调研和理论思考,提出6点建议：提升立法层次、增强法律权威;确立环境优先、追求社会至善;制约行政权力、明确政府责任;提倡环境自治、保障公众参与;突破诉讼瓶颈、鼓励公益诉讼;理顺权责关系、提高管理效率,以期为《环境保护法》的修改和环境法律制度的完善提供参考。〖     

From Obstructionism to Communication: Local,National and Transnational Dimensions of Contestations on the Swedish Wolf Cull Controversy

Two obstructionist ways of doing politics on contentious wildlife management issues currently reflect a legitimacy deficit in official channels for public engagement. The first is that of a pernicious “direct-action” politics, in the form of resort by hunters in rural Sweden to illegal killings of protected wolves over whose policy they contest. The second obstruction is when environmental non-governmental organizations routinely file appeals in higher-level courtrooms contesting democratically mandated wolf cull decisions. Although markedly different when it comes to their categorically deliberative values as well as fidelity to the law, we argue both extra-legal and the litigative phenomena reflect disenfranchisement with the participation channels in which such controversies may be resolved through a public dialogue. We also argue that both possess negative systemic deliberative value inasmuch as they frustrate goals of reaching deliberative consensus, by contributing to a stalled public communication on wolf management. We address this deficit by appeal to recent developments in the theory and practice of mini-publics that promote both the categorical and systemic deliberative value of channeling contestation. In particular, we appeal to a novel conception of hunter-initiated, but citizen controlled, mini-publics as a vehicle for re-starting stalled public communication on wolf conservation.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs): A review on environmental contamination in China

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) which contain diverse organic groups, such as antibiotics, hormones, antimicrobial agents, synthetic musks, etc., have raised significant concerns in recently years for their persistent input and potential threat to ecological environment and human health. China is a large country with high production and consumption of PPCPs for its economic development and population growth in recent years. This may result in PPCP contamination in different environmental media of China. This review summarizes the current contamination status of different environment media, including sewage, surface water, sludge, sediments, soil, and wild animals, in China by PPCPs. The human body burden and adverse effects derived from PPCPs are also evaluated. Based on this review, it has been concluded that more contamination information of aquatic environment and wildlife as well as human body burden of PPCPs in different areas of China is urgent. Studies about their environmental behavior and control technologies need to be conducted, and acute and chronic toxicities of different PPCP groups should be investigated for assessing their potential ecological and health risks.     

Bushmeat consumption and its implications for wildlife conservation in the semi-arid region of Brazil

Hunting plays an important socioeconomic role in the semi-arid region of Brazil, by supplying meat and other products. Nevertheless, there is a lack of information on which species are most used by the local populations and what are the implications for conservation of exploited animals. This paper explores the bushmeat consumption in the Brazilian Caatinga region, where wild animals comprise an important protein source. A questionnaire was used to gather information from hunters, and the consumption of bushmeat by their families was monitored. Interviews revealed that 58 vertebrate species could potentially be consumed as bushmeat, but the samples provided by the monitored families comprised only 28 species. Birds were the animals most consumed, followed by mammals, although the biomass of both groups was similar. The consumption of bushmeat was not correlated with hunters’ socioeconomic data (income, age or schooling). Hunters recognized that the populations of some game species appeared to be declining, showing that bushmeat consumption, together with the cultural, economic and social aspects of the human populations involved in hunting, should be considered when discussing the conservation of animal resources in the Caatinga region.     

湖北野生食果资源特点及其开发途径

野生食果为营养丰富的食用资源植物。在深入调查的基础上，分析了湖北野生食果资源的特点，提出了野生食果资源开发的对策以及产品深加工的途径，为野生食果资源的开发利用打下了坚实的基础。     

Last of the wild revisited: assessing spatial patterns of human impact on landscapes in Southern Patagonia,Chile

Human activities are continuously expanding at a global scale and having an increasing effect on the remaining natural ecosystems in remote areas, such as the Magellan Region of southern Patagonia, Chile. In addition to extensive livestock holdings, aquaculture and tourism are advancing into formerly undisturbed areas, and insufficient information on the spatial scope and intensity of these alterations is available to inform and support conservation policies. The aim of this study was to spatially analyse the degree, scope and spatial distribution of anthropogenic alterations. Accordingly, two spatially explicit indexes, the degree of anthropogenic alteration (DAA) and human influence index (HII), have been applied. The results show a significant spatial overestimation of the remaining undisturbed natural areas. Despite low population densities and extensive conservation designations, a major share of the total area has been anthropogenically altered. Depending on the measure type, between 53.1 % (DAA) and 68.1 % of the area (HII) needs to be considered as influenced by human activity in some way. Our findings challenge previous studies by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS and CIESIN in Last of the wild project, version 2, 2005 (LWP-2): last of the wild dataset (Geographic), NASA socioeconomic data and applications center (SEDAC), Palisades, 2005). Their worldwide assessment of pristine natural environments indicated that a much smaller part of the Magellan region has been subject to human influence. The chosen methodologies represent an opportunity to detect and monitor human influence at small spatial scales, which has heretofore remained unnoticed. Because such alterations are becoming more frequent in remote regions, the assessment approaches presented here provide important information on human–environment interactions to support land-use and nature conservation policy design. In addition, small-scale structures and different types of economic activities are considered to support policies that can protect the remaining natural areas from human encroachment. Moreover, implications of the proposed methodology for biodiversity conservation policy are discussed.     

Perceived Impacts of Ecotourism on Environmental Learning and Conservation: Turtle Watching as a Case Study

Using a case study, involving turtle-based ecotourism, we explore the role of ecotourism in promoting environmental learning and in sustaining conservation of nature. Mon Repos Conservation Park (an important marine turtle rookery involved in ecotourism) in Queensland, Australia, was selected for this study and visitors were surveyed using a structured questionnaire. The reported on-site experiences of respondents are analysed to identify important factors that alter their stated conservation attitudes and behaviours. The impact of these factors (such as the amount of environmental education that respondents claimed they obtained, sighting of sea turtles, nationality) is quantified using regression analyses. There has been little previous quantification of such influences. The study reveals that a considerable amount of environmental knowledge is gained by visitors to Mon Repos. The ecotourism experience, involving environmental education and seeing of turtles, was found to have positive and statistically significant impacts on the visitors' stated desire and intended behaviour to protect sea turtles. The study reveals the importance of learning and the interaction of tourists with wildlife as a contributor to their pro-conservation sentiments and actions. It shows how ecotourism can support nature conservation. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

绿色投资对绿色福利的影响机制研究

提升居民绿色福利是满足人民日益增长的美好生活需要的重要体现,也是建设美丽中国的根本要求。基于此背景,从绿色投资的视角,探讨提升绿色福利的路径。首先,依据Lucas-Uzawa的两部门内生增长模型,构建绿色投资对绿色福利影响的理论分析框架;其次,利用1999—2014年省际面板数据,采用Super-SBM方法测定各地区绿色福利;最后,利用系统GMM方法,结合双重差分法(DID),实证分析了绿色投资对绿色福利的影响及传导途径。结果表明:①中国各省域绿色投资与绿色福利之间在1%显著水平上呈现出正向关系,绿色投资每增加100%,居民绿色福利增加1.21%。因此,政府应当采用差异化的利率,减免税收或增加补贴等方式促进绿色投资,积极引导资金流向绿色产业,从而提升公民的绿色福利。②教育程度在1%显著水平上与绿色福利正相关,大专以上学历人口占比每增加1%,绿色福利增加7.78%。因此,政府应该扩大教育支出,增强居民受教育程度,提高公民就业机会和收入待遇。③对外开放度在1%显著水平与绿色福利正相关,且开放程度每增加一个单位,居民绿色福利提高1.91%。对外开放程度越高,越有助于进出口,促进我国国民经济发展,有助于提升绿色福利。因此,政府应当进一步扩大开放,改善进出口产品结构,提高出口技术复杂度,限制高能耗高污染产品出口。④公众诉求与绿色福利在一定水平下显著负相关,绿色福利低的地方,居民表现出更强烈的诉求。因此,政府应鼓励居民积极有序参与环境决策和监管,减少公众诉求的滞后效应。企业与公民之间需要确立共同的绿色福利目标,构建政府主导下的居民绿色消费与企业绿色创新协同机制,提升公共服务质量,完善环境和经济协同发展,实现绿色福利提升的目的。     

The impacts of herbivory on vegetation in Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana: 1967–2001

Browsing and grazing pressure on vegetation in the Moremi Game Reserve in Botswana was analyzed using remotely sensed imagery comprising CORONA photographs of 1967 and Landsat TM and Landsat ETM imagery of 1989 and 1994 and 2001, respectively. Comparison of temporal variations in the spatial distributions of different vegetation types and changes in the abundance of selected wildlife species demonstrate a persistent decrease in capacity of the environment to support wild animals, due to increasing abundance of poorly preferred browse species and increasing scarcity of favored varieties. Given the long-term direction of change showing continued deterioration of habitat conditions and the limited prospects for reversal of this trend, it is apparent that there is immediate need to realign wildlife management strategies in ways that can enhance the sustainability of wildlife and the supporting environment.     

中国绿色经济发展中的诸方博弈研究

绿色经济是人类经济发展的新方向,是一种新的经济形态和经济模式。发展绿色经济的过程实质上是一个多方博弈过程。本文通过建立"子博弈精炼纳什均衡"模型、精炼贝叶斯博弈模型和一般博弈模型,分析了绿色经济体系构建中的诸方利益博弈关系。不同的博弈主体有不同的利益诉求:中央政府以公共利益长期化为核心的社会整体利益最大化诉求、地方政府政绩导向诉求、企业围绕利润最大化原则和消费者在一定观念指导下的效用最大化原则,诸方利益诉求的交集在于实现社会经济的绿色化,减少污染。研究结果表明,发展绿色经济的政策目标和责任目标与政策执行人员自身利益相挂钩的制度安排是制约污染者的有效路径,制度实施机制对制度实施程度及效率有直接的影响。因此,建议通过建立监管者的奖励机制、引导正确的社会舆论评价、提高执法者的综合素质,强化企业治理污染的约束机制和提高对消费者绿色消费的补贴机制才能妥善处理博弈各方的利益诉求,顺利实现绿色经济发展。     

GM crops and the rat digestive tract: A critical review

The aim of this review is to examine the relationship between genetically modified (GM) crops and health, based on histopathological investigations of the digestive tract in rats. We reviewed published long-term feeding studies of crops containing one or more of three specific traits: herbicide tolerance via the EPSPS gene and insect resistance via cry1Ab or cry3Bb1 genes. These genes are commonly found in commercialised GM crops. Our search found 21 studies for nine (19%) out of the 47 crops approved for human and/or animal consumption. We could find no studies on the other 38 (81%) approved crops. Fourteen out of the 21 studies (67%) were general health assessments of the GM crop on rat health. Most of these studies (76%) were performed after the crop had been approved for human and/or animal consumption, with half of these being published at least nine years after approval. Our review also discovered an inconsistency in methodology and a lack of defined criteria for outcomes that would be considered toxicologically or pathologically significant. In addition, there was a lack of transparency in the methods and results, which made comparisons between the studies difficult. The evidence reviewed here demonstrates an incomplete picture regarding the toxicity (and safety) of GM products consumed by humans and animals. Therefore, each GM product should be assessed on merit, with appropriate studies performed to indicate the level of safety associated with them. Detailed guidelines should be developed which will allow for the generation of comparable and reproducible studies. This will establish a foundation for evidence-based guidelines, to better determine if GM food is safe for human and animal consumption.