High accuracy in situ radiometric mapping

In situ and airborne gamma ray spectrometry have been shown to provide rapid and spatially representative estimates of environmental radioactivity across a range of landscapes. However, one of the principal limitations of this technique has been the influence of changes in the vertical distribution of the source (e.g. 137Cs) on the observed photon fluence resulting in a significant reduction in the accuracy of the in situ activity measurement. A flexible approach for single gamma photon emitting radionuclides is presented, which relies on the quantification of forward scattering (or valley region between the full energy peak and Compton edge) within the gamma ray spectrum to compensate for changes in the 137Cs vertical activity distribution. This novel in situ method lends itself to the mapping of activity concentrations in environments that exhibit systematic changes in the vertical activity distribution. The robustness of this approach has been demonstrated in a salt marsh environment on the Solway coast, SW Scotland, with both a 7.6 cm x 7.6 cm NaI(Tl) detector and a 35% n-type HPGe detector. Application to ploughed field environments has also been demonstrated using HPGe detector, including its application to the estimation of field moist bulk density and soil erosion measurement. Ongoing research work is also outlined.     

Extraction of full absorption peaks in airborne gamma-spectrometry by filtering techniques coupled with a study of the derivatives. Comparison with the window method

In this paper, an adaptation of a spectral profile analysis method, currently used in high-resolution spectrometry, to airborne gamma measurements is presented. A new algorithm has been developed for extraction of full absorption peaks by studying the variations in the spectral profile of data recorded with large-volume NaI detectors (16 l) with a short sampling time (2 s). The use of digital filters, taking into consideration the characteristics of the absorption peaks, significantly reduced the counting fluctuations, making detection possible based on study of the first and second derivatives. The absorption peaks are then obtained by modelling, followed by subtraction of the Compton continuum in the detection window. Compared to the conventional stripping ratio method, spectral profile analysis offers similar performance for the natural radioelements. The 137Cs 1SD detection limit is approximately 1200 Bq/m2 in a natural background of 200 Bq/kg 40K, 33 Bq/kg 238U and 33 Bq/kg 232Th. At low energy the very high continuum leads to detection limits similar to those obtained by the windows method, but the results obtained are more reliable. In the presence of peak overlaps, however, analysis of the spectral profile alone is not sufficient to separate the peaks, and further processing is necessary. Within the framework of environmental monitoring studies, spectral profile analysis is of great interest because it does not require any assumptions about the nature of the nuclides. The calculation of the concentrations from the results obtained is simple and reliable, since only the full absorption contributions are taken into consideration. A quantitative estimate of radioactive anomalies can thus be obtained rapidly.     

A method for determining the analytical form of a radionuclide depth distribution using multiple gamma spectrometry measurements

When characterizing environmental radioactivity, whether in the soil or within concrete building structures undergoing remediation or decommissioning, it is highly desirable to know the radionuclide depth distribution. This is typically modeled using continuous analytical expressions, whose forms are believed to best represent the true source distributions. In situ gamma ray spectroscopic measurements are combined with these models to fully describe the source. Currently, the choice of analytical expressions is based upon prior experimental core sampling results at similar locations, any known site history, or radionuclide transport models. This paper presents a method, employing multiple in situ measurements at a single site, for determining the analytical form that best represents the true depth distribution present. The measurements can be made using a variety of geometries, each of which has a different sensitivity variation with source spatial distribution. Using non-linear least squares numerical optimization methods, the results can be fit to a collection of analytical models and the parameters of each model determined. The analytical expression that results in the fit with the lowest residual is selected as the most accurate representation. A cursory examination is made of the effects of measurement errors on the method.     

Calibration of a portable HPGe detector using MCNP code for the determination of 137Cs in soils

In situ gamma spectrometry provides a fast method to determine (137)Cs inventories in soils. To improve the accuracy of the estimates, one can use not only the information on the photopeak count rates but also on the peak to forward-scatter ratios. Before applying this procedure to field measurements, a calibration including several experimental simulations must be carried out in the laboratory. In this paper it is shown that Monte Carlo methods are a valuable tool to minimize the number of experimental measurements needed for the calibration.     

Seabed gamma-ray spectrometry: applications at IAEA-MEL

The technique of underwater gamma-ray spectrometry has been developed to complement or replace the traditional sampling-sample analysis approach for applications with space-time constraints, e.g. large areas of investigation, emergency response or long-term monitoring. IAEA-MEL has used both high-efficiency NaI(Tl) and high-resolution HPGe spectrometry to investigate contamination with anthropogenic radionuclides in a variety of marine environments. Surveys at the South Pacific nuclear test sites of Mururoa and Fangataufa have been used to guide sampling in areas of high contamination around ground zero points. In the Irish Sea offshore from the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant, a gamma-ray survey of seabed sediment was carried out to obtain estimates of the distribution and subsequently, for the inventory of 137Cs in the investigated area.     

Optimisation of sampling for the temporal monitoring of technetium-99 in the Arctic marine environment

Monitoring of the marine environment for radioactivity, for both radiological protection and oceanographic purposes, remains an expensive and labour intensive activity due to the large sample volumes needed and the complex and lengthy analytical procedures required to measure low levels of contamination. Because of this, some consideration must be given to the design of sampling plans to ensure effective and efficient sampling that can be defended on the basis of scientific rationale. This article tests the hypothesis that geostatistical techniques may prove of use in the optimisation and design of sampling regimes for the monitoring of temporal fluctuations in the levels of technetium at a location in the Norwegian Arctic marine environment. The level of temporal correlation exhibited by two relevant time series was investigated and the information used to observe the effect of sampling frequency on the production of monthly estimates of activity of technetium in both seawater and seaweed. The results indicate that reduced sampling frequency allows production of estimates that acceptably replicate the actual data and that use of geostatistical procedures may offer advantages in the planning of monitoring systems for marine radioactivity. The use of an oceanographic model was also investigated as a means of assessing the temporal correlation prior to actual sampling, an approach that may offer significant advantages by reducing the need to have lengthy time series prior to designing sampling regimes.     

The Spatial Dimension of Landscape Sustainability

Sustainability indicators are mostly derived from parameters which are, in the spatial dimension, more or less distribution-free. In the majority of cases, the indicators are based on statistical data on production, consumption, pollutants emission, land use, etc. This statistical approach is liable to mask sustainability risks which are primarily caused by specific spatial and temporal patterns of landscape and land use structure, such as degradation of soil functions, disturbances in the landscape's water balance, and losses in functional habitat quality.Sustainability risks due to ecologically non-adapted spatial landuse patterns require measures on regional to local scales, based on disaggregated, spatially explicit indicators. Depending on the respective planning and decision level, different levels of spatial aggregation/disaggregation have to be considered.In the concept presented here, a differentiated approach is proposed. For an aggregated assessment of landscape sustainability, long term monitoring of the dynamics of water flow and matter load at the outlet point of river catchments is recommended. A prerequisite for analyzing those measurements in terms of the catchments' land cover and land use pattern, as well as changes thereof, is a Geographic Information System (GIS) holding relevant up-to-date geodata sets. For a spatially more detailed indication of sustainability risks, an approach of GIS-based functional landscape assessment was demonstrated in a regional case study.The results show GIS on regional to local scales together with satellite remote sensing data on land cover and landuse to be a powerful data basis for spatially explicit landscape evaluation, provided that suitable models for assessing specific landscape functions are applied.     

Geostatistics for environmental monitoring and survey design

Geostatistics is a field of statistics which development to solve estimation problems in the mining industry. Geostatistical techniques, however, can also be useful in the environmental sciences. For example, one geostatistical technique, called kriging, can be used to obtain unbiased, minimum variance estimates of the spatial distribution of a pollutant. In this discussion, an introduction to kriging is presented. In addition, a brief review of some of the applications of kriging in the fields of hydrology and geohydrology, soil science, agronomy, and contaminant monitoring is presented.     

Determination of depleted uranium in environmental samples by gamma-spectroscopic techniques

The military use of depleted uranium initiated the need for an efficient and reliable method to detect and quantify DU contamination in environmental samples. This paper presents such a method, based on the gamma spectroscopic determination of 238U and 235U. The main advantage of this method is that it allows for a direct determination of the U isotope ratio, while requiring little sample preparation and being significantly less labor intensive than methods requiring radiochemical treatment. Furthermore, the fact that the sample preparation is not destructive greatly simplifies control of the quality of measurements. Low energy photons are utilized, using Ge detectors efficient in the low energy region and applying appropriate corrections for self-absorption. Uranium-235 in particular is determined directly from its 185.72 keV photons, after analyzing the 235U-226Ra multiplet. The method presented is applied to soil samples originating from two different target sites, in Southern Yugoslavia and Montenegro. The analysis results are discussed in relation to the natural radioactivity content of the soil at the sampling sites. A mapping algorithm is applied to examine the spatial variability of the DU contamination.     

Uranium-238 and thorium-232 series concentrations in soil, radon-222 indoor and drinking water concentrations and dose assessment in the city of Aldama, Chihuahua, Mexico

High-resolution gamma spectrometry was used to determine the concentration of 40K, 238U and 232Th series in soil samples taken from areas surrounding the city of Aldama, in Chihuahua. Results of indoor air short-time sampling, with diffusion barrier charcoal detectors, revealed relatively high indoor radon levels, ranging from 29 to 422 Bq/m3; the radon concentrations detected exceeded 148 Bq/m3 in 76% of the homes tested. Additionally, liquid scintillation counting showed concentrations of radon in drinking water ranging from 4.3 to 42 kBq/m3. The high activity of 238U in soil found in some places may be a result of the uranium milling process performed 20 years ago in the area. High radon concentrations indoor and in water may be explained by assuming the presence of uranium-bearing rocks underneath of the city, similar to a felsic dike located near Aldama. The estimated annual effective dose of gamma radiation from the soil and radon inhalation was 3.83 mSv.     

Are the residents of former Yugoslavia still exposed to elevated PCB levels due to the Balkan wars? Part 2: Passive air sampling network

Many Eastern European countries suffer the lack of data on concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in the environmental matrices. This absence of information is preventing the local authorities from taking the adequate actions to protect the people and environment. This is even more alarming in the countries recently affected by the wars where the chemicals released to the environment during the military operations can cause a significant ecological damage and health effects on the population. A potential of passive air sampling technique as a tool capable of providing seasonally and spatially resolved information about the local sources and levels of contamination was explored in this study as a first step to the establishment of a cost-effective long-term monitoring in this area. The passive air samplers proved to be a powerful technique capable of detecting the concentrations ranging over four orders of magnitude providing the information very comparable with the conventional techniques.     

Human exposure to PCDD/Fs in the UK: the development of a modelling approach to give historical and future perspectives

In order to assess the long-term impact of persistent organic contaminants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) it is important to be able to quantify historical exposure. An understanding of past exposure is not only important to place our current body burdens in perspective, but is useful in assessing our potential future exposure. Unfortunately, very few direct measurements of our main source of exposure (i.e., food) over the past decades are available. This study attempts to reconstruct the historical exposure of the UK population to PCDD/Fs using a combination of emission estimates, information on environmental temporal trends derived from sediment cores and archived materials, and environmental/human fate modelling. Predicted adipose and blood lipid concentrations for a typical cross section of the population are derived over time (1920-2000), which is compared with measured data. The approach has been tested with two PCDDs and two PCDFs and showed encouraging agreement with measured data. Certain parts of the modelling methodology have been highlighted where there is still poor understanding of the processes governing fate and behaviour. These areas are discussed and recommendations for future improvements are made. The paper thus represents an initial modelling approach which defines both the historical (1920-present) and future (present-2020) fate of PCDD/Fs in the UK population.     

Natural radionuclides as tracers of the dispersal of dredge spoil dumped at sea.

Monitoring large (underwater) surfaces, with rapidly varying composition, requires a sampling density which exceeds the capabilities of standard techniques. These techniques involve sample collection and a number of treatments and measurements in the laboratory; both steps are laborious, tedious and costly. This paper presents an in situ method in which a detector system is trailed over the surface and measures continuously the gamma rays emitted by the natural radionuclides in the sediment. Since each sediment component has its own characteristic set of activity-concentration values (radiometric fingerprint), the composition of the sediment can be deduced quantitatively. This paper shows the application of this technique for monitoring the dispersal of dredge spoil from Rotterdam harbour, dumped in the North Sea. In addition to a qualitative picture of dredge spoil dispersal, a mass balance equation has been used to quantitatively assess the dredge spoil transport with time.     

Review of dynamical models for external dose calculations based on Monte Carlo simulations in urbanised areas

After an accidental release of radionuclides to the inhabited environment the external gamma irradiation from deposited radioactivity contributes significantly to the radiation exposure of the population for extended periods. For evaluating this exposure pathway, three main model requirements are needed: (i) to calculate the air kerma value per photon emitted per unit source area, based on Monte Carlo (MC) simulations; (ii) to describe the distribution and dynamics of radionuclides on the diverse urban surfaces; and (iii) to combine all these elements in a relevant urban model to calculate the resulting doses according to the actual scenario. This paper provides an overview about the different approaches to calculate photon transport in urban areas and about several dose calculation codes published. Two types of Monte Carlo simulations are presented using the global and the local approaches of photon transport. Moreover, two different philosophies of the dose calculation, the "location factor method" and a combination of relative contamination of surfaces with air kerma values are described. The main features of six codes (ECOSYS, EDEM2M, EXPURT, PARATI, TEMAS, URGENT) are highlighted together with a short model-model features intercomparison.     

Plutonium contamination from accidental release or simply fallout: study of soils at Palomares (Spain)

The activity concentration of plutonium in an environmental sample does not usually constitute sufficient information to determine if it is due only to fallout. Alpha and gamma spectrometry are used here conjointly in the study of environmental soil samples to distinguish between samples showing plutonium contamination due to fallout exclusively, and samples contaminated with plutonium from another source. The method was applied to soil samples collected in Palomares (Spain), where an accidental release of aerosols contaminated with plutonium occurred. The two contributions (fallout and accidentally released plutonium) were separated by means of the activity ratios between various radionuclides present in the samples analyzed. The fallout level was estimated from the 239 + 240Pu/137Cs activity ratio. For samples showing contamination due to the accident, the 238Pu/239 + 240Pu and 239Pu/240Pu activity ratios were also calculated to determine the grade of plutonium of this contamination.     

Modelling the environmental fate of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers

In response to growing alarm over the occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in remote regions, this study considers their physical chemistry, environmental partitioning and considerations regarding potential for long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT). Internally consistent physical-chemical property data are presented for five representative congeners (PBDE-15, -28, -47, -99, -153) and used in a multimedia modelling approach. Results of the Level II model indicate that PBDEs will largely partition to organic carbon in soil and sediment and that their persistence will be strongly influenced by degradation rates in these media that are not well known. TaPL3 model estimates of their characteristic travel distance (CTD) suggest limited LRAT potential. The LRAT is also evaluated qualitatively, in terms of surface-air exchange behaviour. PBDEs are shown to be sensitive to seasonally and diurnally fluctuating temperatures. When vegetation is included in the model, 50% of the total mass of PBDE-47 deposited to vegetation returns to the atmosphere, suggesting that it may migrate through a series of deposition/volatilisation hops. Key data that needs to be identified in this evaluation include a better understanding of air-surface exchange, particularly to foliage, and measurements of degradation rates in soil, sediment and vegetation.     

Indicators to identify the agricultural pressures on environmental functions and their use in the development of agri-environmental measures

The effects of agricultural activities on the environment can be presented by suitable pressure indicators. These pressure indicators can also be used as control variables to achieve a desired environmental state. Therefore, pressure indicators can play a decisive role in the elaboration of agri-environmental measures. This paper deals with the use of pressure indicators to assess the sustainability of agricultural land use on the one hand, and their contribution to the development of agri-environmental measures on the other hand. After the illustration of the general political background on the CAP evolution and the information needed for monitoring, control and ex-post assessment, the methodological approach of the AEMBAC project to provide this information is presented. Experiences in applying pressure indicators in assessing the agri-environmental measures are discussed and their applicability for the identification of environmental impacts, management and monitoring is evaluated.     

Assessment of the environmental contamination with long-lived radionuclides around an operating RBMK reactor station

The presence of man-made gamma emitting radionuclides in the region within 32km radius of the Ignalina NPP/Lithuania has been investigated during the period 2001-2004, prior to the closure of the first of the two operating RBMK 1500-type reactors. Gamma spectrometric measurements of various terrestrial and aquatic plants as well as of soil samples showed moderate environmental contamination with the fission product (137)Cs and with the neutron activation products (60)Co and (54)Mn. Traces of the activation products (65)Zn and (110m)Ag were found in the nearest vicinity of the NPP. Activity concentrations were inhomogeneously distributed in the area of interest. Moss and algae samples showed the highest uptake of radionuclides. In addition to the gamma spectrometric measurements, the levels of (14)C were determined in the same bio-indicator samples using accelerator mass spectrometry.     

The influence of uncertainty and location-specific conditions on the environmental prioritisation of human pharmaceuticals in Europe

The selection of priority APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients) can benefit from a spatially explicit approach, since an API might exceed the threshold of environmental concern in one location, while staying below that same threshold in another. However, such a spatially explicit approach is relatively data intensive and subject to parameter uncertainty due to limited data. This raises the question to what extent a spatially explicit approach for the environmental prioritisation of APIs remains worthwhile when accounting for uncertainty in parameter settings. We show here that the inclusion of spatially explicit information enables a more efficient environmental prioritisation of APIs in Europe, compared with a non-spatial EU-wide approach, also under uncertain conditions. In a case study with nine antibiotics, uncertainty distributions of the PAF (Potentially Affected Fraction) of aquatic species were calculated in 100 1 100 km² environmental grid cells throughout Europe, and used for the selection of priority APIs. Two APIs have median PAF values that exceed a threshold PAF of 1% in at least one environmental grid cell in Europe, i.e., oxytetracycline and erythromycin. At a tenfold lower threshold PAF (i.e., 0.1%), two additional APIs would be selected, i.e., cefuroxime and ciprofloxacin. However, in 94% of the environmental grid cells in Europe, no APIs exceed either of the thresholds. This illustrates the advantage of following a location-specific approach in the prioritisation of APIs. This added value remains when accounting for uncertainty in parameter settings, i.e., if the 95th percentile of the PAF instead of its median value is compared with the threshold. In 96% of the environmental grid cells, the location-specific approach still enables a reduction of the selection of priority APIs of at least 50%, compared with a EU-wide prioritisation.