Fuelwood assessment at micro-watershed level in Northeast Himalaya:a case study in Manipur,India

Fuelwood is one of the major sources of energy in the domestic sector across the rural areas,especially in the developing regions across the world.The Northeastern Himalayan state of Manipur is dominated by the tribal population that largely depends on fuelwood from the nearby forest area.The entire dependence on forests for energy resources is affecting the sustainability of the forest ecosystem in the region,thus indicating the livelihood conditions.Since land-use land-cover change is the key driver to the change in resource availability of a region,the present study has tried to analyze the landcover changes over a period 28 years.The second major component affecting resource availability is the increasing population pressure that leads to changes in the land dynamics,which directly affect the resource production.Based on the existing consumption pattern,the total consumption of fuelwood in the watershed ranges fiom a minimum of 289.992 tons/year to a maximum of 3545.719 tons/year with an average of 1561.956 tons/year in the year 2009 and simulated fuelwood consumption for the year 2021 is around 1469.260 tons/year.Nine different probable scenarios of resource are proposed to calculate the stress value that can be used by the policy-makers and planners for suitable policy implementation at the micro level with a complex social system.     

Fuelwood assessment at micro-watershed level in Northeast Himalaya: a case study in Manipur,India

Fuelwood is one of the major sources of energy in the domestic sector across the rural areas, especially in the developing regions across the world. The Northeastern Himalayan state of Manipur is dominated by the tribal population that largely depends on fuelwood from the nearby forest area. The entire dependence on forests for energy resources is affecting the sustainability of the forest ecosystem in the region, thus indicating the livelihood conditions. Since land-use land-cover change is the key driver to the change in resource availability of a region, the present study has tried to analyze the land-cover changes over a period 28 years. The second major component affecting resource availability is the increasing population pressure that leads to changes in the land dynamics, which directly affect the resource production. Based on the existing consumption pattern, the total consumption of fuelwood in the watershed ranges from a minimum of 289.992 tons/year to a maximum of 3545.719 tons/year with an average of 1561.956 tons/year in the year 2009 and simulated fuelwood consumption for the year 2021 is around 1469.260 tons/year. Nine different probable scenarios of resource are proposed to calculate the stress value that can be used by the policy-makers and planners for suitable policy implementation at the micro level with a complex social system.     

The role of remittances and decentralization of forest management in the sustainability of a municipal-communal pine forest in eastern Guatemala

At the national scale, forest cover in Guatemala declined at an annual rate of 1.2% during the past quarter century because of settlement that removed primary forests in the northern region of the country; however, the majority of the population of Guatemala still resides in the densely populated central highlands and has extracted timber and fuelwood from adjacent forests for centuries. Using baseline data recorded in 1987 and 1996, this article reexamined the sustainability of a municipal-communal pine forest in San José La Arada, a municipality in eastern Guatemala. The pine forest declined from the period 1987 to 1996 because of overextraction of timber and fuelwood. Forest structure and forest use were reexamined from the period 1996 to 2007 to test the hypothesis that the forest continued to decline. Forest characteristics such as stand density, basal area, tree height, and evidence of forest use were measured to replicate the procedures from previous work at the study area. To understand changes in forest structure and forest use in the context of the rise in remittances and the introduction of decentralized forest governance that emerged since 1996, a household survey was conducted in two adjacent villages. Forest structure improved from 1996 to 2007. From 1996 to 2007, forest characteristics such as stand density, basal area, tree height, and forest regeneration improved and evidence of forest use decreased in the municipal-communal pine forest. The influence of large amounts of remittances from the United States and other regions of Guatemala to households in the adjacent villages and the decentralization of forest governance largely explains the shift toward forest sustainability in San José La Arada.     

Protein futures for Western Europe: potential land use and climate impacts in 2050

Multiple production and demand side measures are needed to improve food system sustainability. This study quantified the theoretical minimum agricultural land requirements to supply Western Europe with food in 2050 from its own land base, together with GHG emissions arising. Assuming that crop yield gaps in agriculture are closed, livestock production efficiencies increased and waste at all stages reduced, a range of food consumption scenarios were modelled each based on different ‘protein futures’. The scenarios were as follows: intensive and efficient livestock production using today’s species mix; intensive efficient poultry–dairy production; intensive efficient aquaculture–dairy; artificial meat and dairy; livestock on ‘ecological leftovers’ (livestock reared only on land unsuited to cropping, agricultural residues and food waste, with consumption capped at that level of availability); and a ‘plant-based eating’ scenario. For each scenario, ‘projected diet’ and ‘healthy diet’ variants were modelled. Finally, we quantified the theoretical maximum carbon sequestration potential from afforestation of spared agricultural land. Results indicate that land use could be cut by 14–86 % and GHG emissions reduced by up to approximately 90 %. The yearly carbon storage potential arising from spared agricultural land ranged from 90 to 700 Mt CO₂ in 2050. The artificial meat and plant-based scenarios achieved the greatest land use and GHG reductions and the greatest carbon sequestration potential. The ‘ecological leftover’ scenario required the least cropland as compared with the other meat-containing scenarios, but all available pasture was used, and GHG emissions were higher if meat consumption was not capped at healthy levels.     

Can timber and water resources be sustainably co-developed in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia?

In the south-east of New South Wales, Australia, forested catchments are largely relied upon to provide high-quality surface water at low cost to small regional communities. The forests in question are used for multiple purposes including timber production, which can result in conflicts and debate regarding the sustainability of timber and water resources being co-developed. A case study is examined where a logging operation will occur on 3.5% of the Myrtle Creek catchment that is used to supply water to the small township of Wyndham. Modelling based on the water yield response of eucalypt forests to disturbance predicts that during the first four years post-harvest, total streamflows will be increased under the ‘2010 logging’ scenario, with a maximum increase of 2.6% within the first two years. Streamflows will then likely decrease compared to the ‘no logging’ scenario and will continue to do so until regrowth reaches 28 years of age with a maximum 1.4% decrease predicted. Streamflows under both scenarios will continue to increase over time as water yield has been suppressed by forest regeneration following extensive wildfires and logging that occurred from the 1960s to 1980s. It is concluded that timber harvesting, if limited spatially and temporally, can occur without compromising catchment values and may contribute to improved forest heterogeneity and resilience. However, in the face of a changing climate and an increased likelihood of catastrophic high intensity wildfires, the future sustainability of undercapitalised small town water supplies reliant on a single water source is questionable.     

怒江流域森林资源的本土利用调查与分析

基于怒江流域北段高黎贡山自然保护区周边4个社区的森林资源利用状况详细调查数据，运用建房频率计算农村地区建房周期、气干密度换算薪材材积等方法，分别依本土居民的建材、薪材、围栏（篱）用材和非木材林产品（NWFPs）4种森林资源利用方式，计算、分析怒江流域北段森林资源当地利用的消耗量和消耗结构。结果显示：怒江流域北段建房材消耗量0.10 m³ /a·人，薪材3.87 m³/a·人，农地围栏用材0.019 m³/a·人，年户均采集以菌类和中药材为主的非木材林产品73.95 kg。表明消耗量最大的利用形式是薪材，而非传统认为的建房材和农地围栏材；农村社区木楞房、木片房和农地围栏“长期留存”，而薪材流量大“库存小”的表象，是导致认识偏差的原因。调查社区的地理位置、社区规模和民族组成等在怒江流域北段具较强代表性，结果可为调查区森林资源可持续经营提供参考，也可为高黎贡山（怒江）国家级自然保护区的科学管理提供依据.     

Impact of climate change on vulnerability of forests and ecosystem service supply in Western Rhodopes Mountains

The vulnerability of forest ecosystem services to climate change is expected to depend on landscape characteristic and management history, but may also be influenced by the proximity to the southern range limit of constituent tree species. In the Western Rhodopes in South Bulgaria, Norway spruce is an important commercial species, but is approaching its current southern limit. Using climate sensitive forest models, we projected the impact of climate change on timber production, carbon storage, biodiversity and soil retention in two representative landscapes in the Western Rhodopes; a lower elevation landscape (1000–1450 m a.s.l) dominated by mixed species forests, and a higher elevation landscape (1550–2100 m a.s.l.) currently dominated by spruce. In both landscapes climate change is projected to induce a shift in forest composition, with drought-sensitive species, such as Norway spruce, being replaced by more drought-tolerant species such as Scots pine and black pine at lower elevations. In the higher elevation landscape a reduction in spruce growth is projected, particularly under the more severe climate change scenarios. Under most climate scenarios a reduction in growing stock is projected to occur, but under some scenarios a moderate increase in higher elevation stands (>1500 m a.s.l.) is expected. Climate change is projected to negatively influence carbon storage potential across landscapes with the magnitude depending on the severity of the climate change scenario. The impact of climate change on forest diversity and habitat availability is projected to differ considerably between the two landscapes, with diversity and habitat quality generally increasing at higher elevations, and being reduced at lower elevations. Our results suggest that if currently management practices are maintained the sensitivity of forests and forest ecosystem services in the Western Rhodopes to climate change will differ between low and higher elevation sites and will depend strongly on current forest composition.     

SWAT与MIKE21耦合模型及其在澎溪河流域的应用

结合SWAT分布式模型研究污染负荷的优势和MIKE21模型对水动力水质先进的模拟技术,构建SWAT与MIKE21耦合模型。根据澎溪河地形、土壤、植被、气象、水文、水质资料,在空间上建立流域SWAT水文单元与MIKE21水动力模型边界的连接,在量值上建立SWAT模型各水文单元污染物负荷输出量与MIKE21模型污染浓度输入量之间的分配关系,研究澎溪河流域输沙量、氮、磷负荷量和水污染。模拟结果表明：2009年3月至2010年3月澎溪河渠马、高阳、黄石、双江大桥4个断面的总氮、总磷浓度和叶绿素a含量的模拟值与实测值具有较好的一致性,澎溪河回水区水质为中营养~中富营养状态,水体氮、磷等营养盐浓度主要受面源污染的影响。SWAT与MIKE21耦合模型可靠性好,适合于流域水污染研究     

Agricultural adjustment,population dynamics and forests redistribution in a subtropical watershed of NW Argentina

Patterns of land-use and land-cover change are usually grouped into one of two categories defined by the dominant trend: (1) deforestation resulting from expanding agriculture and (2) forest expansion, usually related to the abandonment of marginal lands. At regional scale, however, both processes can occur simultaneously even in the absence of net change. Given the focus on net change, such redistribution of agricultural and natural and seminatural lands has been generally overlooked. The interaction between agriculture modernization, human demography and complex topographic gradients of northwestern Argentina has resulted in processes of both forest recovery and deforestation, thus providing the opportunity to analyze patterns and driving forces of land-cover redistribution. We analyzed 20 years (1986–2006) of land-cover change in a subtropical watershed in relation to topographic and demographic variables. Although net forest change represented <1 %, forests redistribution affected 7 % of forest lands. There was a consistent geographic segregation of deforestation and forest recovery, with forests expanding over steep highlands and agriculture expanding over lowland irrigated areas. Population trends were not associated to forest expansion in lowlands but they explained 32 % of forest recovery in highlands. Highland forest expansion and lowland deforestation, respectively, imply conservation opportunities for humid montane forests and the environmental services they provide (e.g., watershed conservation) and threats for the conservation of dry forests and its biodiversity. Our study exemplifies the importance of land-use redistribution (rather than net change) with relevant environmental consequences at regional scale.     

Scenarios and story lines: drivers of land use change in southern Mexico

The study presents three scenarios of land use and cover change (LUCC), the most important factor for environmental degradation in southern Mexico. We developed story lines and quantitative projections for regional scenarios based on historic LUCC processes, environmental policies, socioeconomic drivers, stakeholder consultations and official planning documents to gain a better understanding of drivers of LUCC, and quantitative scenarios were modeled with DINAMICA-EGO. Regionally specific interactions between social and natural systems are recognized, and detrimental policies and policy options for landscape conservation and management for sustainability are acknowledged in a base line, variant and alternative scenario. Incongruent policies and ineffective ground implementation of conservation actions were identified as the critical underlying drivers of deforestation and forest degradation that could lead to a severe reduction in natural forests, while the local socioeconomic situation stays precarious. The baseline scenario parts from an analysis of historic LUCC processes and shows the consequences of LUCC tendencies: 73% of temperate forests and 50% of tropical forests would get deforested until 2030. In the variant scenario, these tendencies are adjusted to planning goals extracted from official documents and recent changes in public policies. The alternative scenario further addresses policy options for fostering conservation and sustainable development, but because of the time lag of implementation, still 59% of temperate forests and 36% of tropical forest would get lost until 2030. Nevertheless, this represents a reduction of 13% of forest loss and 11% less pastureland due to the proposed measures of conservation, and sustainable management, including strategies for reforming agricultural systems, agricultural and forestry policies and trade, land tenure and livelihood risk management.     

三峡库区乔木林生物量和碳储量的估算

以三峡库区为研究地点,建立库区优势树种立木生物量模型,并测定乔木含碳系数,结合库区第7次和第8次森林资源连续清查数据,估算了整个三峡库区乔木林的生物量和碳储量。研究结果表明:(1)整个库区乔木林生物量和碳储量第7次调查为12 583×104t和6 471×104t,单位面积生物量75.70t/hm2,碳密度38.93t/hm2,第8次调查为14 253×104t和7 396×104t,单位面积生物量77.46t/hm2,碳密度40.20t/hm2。可见,这5a中,三峡库区生物量和碳储量都有所增加。(2)对于不同森林植被类型来说,松类的生物量和碳储量都显著高于其他类型,分别占三峡库区生物量和碳储量的40%和50%。(3)三峡库区森林植被生物量和碳储量随龄级增大先增大后减少,在中龄林时达到最大,比较两次调查的生物量和碳储量,森林植被主要以幼林龄和中龄林占优。(4)两次调查显示三峡库区森林植被生物量和碳储量主要分布在天然林中,对于碳汇起到主要作用,同时,人工林所占的比例有所提高,其碳汇能力也逐步提高。     

Forest dynamics in Mississippi, USA: a hybrid statistical and geospatial analysis

Understanding forest changes and its trajectory is important to develop policy options and future scenarios for climate analysis. This research is conducted to gain insights on secondary forests change using Mississippi, USA, as a case study. We investigate the spatial patterns and temporal dynamics of secondary forests at high resolution and examine the forces driving their changes. An extensive literature review is conducted to refine the conceptual framework of forest changes and identify the underlying key factors. Forest changes are quantified at high spatial (30-m) and temporal (biennial) resolutions, using time series remotely sensed data between 1984 and 2007. A number of geospatial and socioeconomic data were compiled to analyze the spatial variations of forest disturbances and their linkages to various socioeconomic, political, and biogeophysical factors. The results show that the secondary forests are highly dynamic and variable. Disturbances and regeneration occur continuously everywhere in a systematic and coordinated fashion. This pattern prevents an extensive disturbance and increases total forest cover. Market conditions (i.e., timber price) are the key predictor of the level and overall trend of forest disturbances. However, spatial patterns of forest dynamics cannot be explained by location-specific biophysical, socioeconomic, and policy factors identified in the literature. They can best be described by the ecological characteristics of the forests (i.e., the forest type and age distribution), which have a clear economic linkage. The research shows that regenerated forests frequently experience loss and gain of their extent, and their ecological characteristics change drastically on a short-term basis. These results point out challenges and opportunities in forest management and policy with regard to reforestation.     

The clean development mechanism and community forests in Sub-Saharan Africa: reconsidering Kyoto’s “moral position” on biocarbon sinks in the carbon market

Negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol reached what has been called a moral position on biocarbon sinks which saw important limitations on their use in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the Protocol’s main carbon offset system. After outlining this moral position, this article examines the consequences of these limitations on the viability of community forest participation in the CDM through a case study of three community forests in West Africa. Results suggest that there is significant carbon mitigation potential from forest conservation, reforestation as well as from improved fuelwood cookstoves at the community level. Yet under the current rules of the CDM, little of this overall carbon mitigation potential is able to be realized. Using qualitative research methodologies, it was learned that community respondents showed a pragmatic, yet cautious interest in the CDM while also emphasizing a need for land-use flexibility. The paper closes with a political discussion of the “‘moral position” on biocarbon sinks in the carbon market and concludes with policy recommendations for biocarbon sinks, in both the CDM and REDD, in the post-Kyoto climate change regime.     

Social demand for multiple benefits provided by Aleppo pine forest management in Catalonia,Spain

This paper estimates the social demand for key benefits provided by Aleppo pine forests in Catalonia that can be enhanced by management. These so-called externalities are the side effects of forest management on citizens’ welfare and can be either positive or negative. The externalities addressed are: biodiversity (measured as the number of tree species), accessibility for practicing recreational activities, CO₂ sequestration and annual burned area by wildfires. By the use of a choice experiment, an economic valuation method, we estimate in a joint manner people’s preferences for these externalities and show that there is a social demand for their enhanced provision. Based on these estimates, we construct three hypothetical scenarios reflecting the range of likely outcomes of different management strategies and calculate the social demand for these scenarios. Results show that the highest gains in terms of social benefits are obtained under a scenario that minimizes the burned area (2044.23 €/ha year). Our estimates show that an increase in the investment in forest management is in line with the social demand for forest benefits and the social support that exists for a related cost increase for inhabitants.     

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation under forestation scenarios: options to improve management in the Vez watershed,NW Portugal

Ensuring forest protection and the delivery of forest ecosystem services is a central aim of the European Union’s biodiversity strategy for 2020. Therefore, accurate modelling and mapping of ecosystem services as well as of biodiversity conservation value is an important asset in support of spatial planning and policy implementation. The objectives of this study were to analyse the provision of the multiple ecosystem services under two forestation scenarios (eucalyptus/pine vs. oak) at the watershed scale and to evaluate their possible trade-offs with the biodiversity conservation value. The Vez watershed, in northwest Portugal, was used as case study area, in which soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) was applied to simulate the provision of hydrological services, biomass and carbon storage services. Biodiversity conservation value was based on nature protection regimes and on expert judgement applied to a land cover map. Results indicated large provision of ecosystem services in the high and low mountain sub-basins. The overall performance for water quantity and timing is better under the shrubland and oak forest scenarios, when compared to the eucalyptus/pine forest scenario, which perform better for flood regulation and erosion control services, especially in the low mountain sub-basin. The current shrubland dominated cover also shows good performance for the control of soil erosion. The oak scenario is the one with less trade-offs between forest services and biodiversity conservation. Results highlight SWAT as an effective tool for modelling and mapping ecosystem services generated at the watershed scale, thereby contributing to improve the options for land management.     

Modeling spatio-temporal change patterns of forest cover: a case study from the Himalayan foothills (India)

The present study used temporal remote sensing data for 1990, 2001 and 2006 to assess spatio-temporal patterns of forest cover changes in Shiwalik range of the Himalaya, Dehradun forest division. Forests are innately associated to human well-being. However, with the increasing anthropogenic activities, deforestation has increased. Quantitative change analysis of the forest cover for the past two decades provides valuable insight into the forest conservation vis-à-vis anthropogenic activities in the region. Spatio-temporal datasets along with biotic and abiotic variables provide opportunities to model the forest cover change further. The present study investigates forest cover change and predicts status of forest cover in the Dehradun forest division. Land Change Modeller (LCM) was used to predict status of forest cover for 2010 and 2015 using current disturbance scenarios. Comparing actual LULC of 2006 with the predicted LULC of 2006 validated change prediction model and agreement was 61.03%. The forested areas are getting degraded due to anthropogenic activities, but deforestation/degradation does not contribute much in expanding urban area. Agricultural areas and fallow lands are the main contributors to increased urban area. The study demonstrates the potential of geospatial tools to understand spatio-temporal forest cover change and generate the future scenarios.     

Land-cover changes in and around a National Park in a mountain landscape in the Pyrenees

The current state of Mediterranean mountain areas has been driven by two main factors: intense traditional human activity and the dynamics of the ecosystem itself. In this study, we examine land-cover changes in a National Park in the Pyrenees mountains (NE Iberian Peninsula), which was designated a protected area 55 years ago. First, we have analyzed spatio-temporal changes in land-cover pattern and forest dynamics from 1957 to 2005. During this period, land-cover dynamics consisted of two main processes: (i) expansion of the forest area and (ii) increasing cover of forests already present in 1957. To analyze the role of the conservation level of the park, we have also compared the results obtained within the park with those of unprotected, peripheral areas. In the two areas with different protection level, dense forests increased throughout the period because of the reduction in forestry activities. The peripheral area showed a higher rate of forest-cover change from 1957 to 2005 compared to the National Park. This higher increase in forest cover in the peripheral area could be related to a higher proportion in the National Park of screes and rocky areas and to the decline and transformation of forest activities in these peripheral, lower elevation areas.     

Sustainable cooking energy options for rural poor people in India: an empirical study

Currently, energy consumption for cooking in rural households of India is mostly based on fuelwood used in traditional stoves. This paper presents results of a study carried out in a forest fringe area of India on cooking energy use. The concept of calculating levelized cost as cost per unit of useful energy is applied on source–device combinations of cooking and validated in Bargaon Community Development Block of Sundergarh District in Odisha, India. About 92 % of the households in the study area use fuelwood as the only energy source for cooking; the total use of fuelwood for only cooking, in the Block is nearly 1.8 times the total sustainable wood supply showing an urgent need for promoting alternative cooking energy options. This paper also presents an assessment of different cooking options in terms of cost per unit of useful cooking energy. LPG, biogas and gasifier stoves are found to be far too expensive for the local people. Briquette-fired improved stoves appear to be a promising cooking energy option in the study area. Government support and intervention are recommended for promoting this option.     

基于时序NDVI数据的鄱阳湖流域常绿覆被季节性变化特征

选择位于红壤丘陵区的鄱阳湖流域作为研究对象,利用1 km×1 km分辨率的时序SPOT4-VEGETATION数据,对流域内典型土地覆被--常绿覆被的绿度值、峰值、谷值、年均NDVI(NDVI-I)和NDVl年内极差(NDVIMM)等特征值进行了提取.在此基础上,探讨了不同常绿覆被类型的NDVI指数年内季节变化规律.结果表明:时序NDVI指数基本上能够较好地刻画不同常绿覆被类型之间的差异性,植被指数NDVI特征值随覆被的类型及其生长状态有规律地变化,即NDVI年均值和最小值基本上按"常绿阔叶林＞常绿针阔叶混交林＞常绿针叶林＞常绿针叶一落叶混交林"的顺序变化;典型常绿阔叶林的NDVI指数年内变化曲线基本上没有大的起伏波动;常绿针叶林以及常绿针阔叶混交林占主导地位的常绿混交林NDVI指数年内变化比较和缓,但常在8月和11月有所波动;以常绿针叶林为主、但有较多落叶林混杂其中的常绿混交林,其NDVI指数年内变化曲线基本上呈和缓的单峰型波动.     

Changes in the dry tropical forests in Central India with human use

Understanding changes in forest composition and structure is important to help formulate effective policies that promote future ability of forests to provide local livelihood needs, habitat and ecosystem services. This is particularly important in dry tropical forests that are ecologically different from other forests and are heavily used by local, forest-dependent residents. In this study, we identify biophysical, demographic and use factors associated with differences in species diversity, vegetation structure (abundance at different size classes), biomass and relative abundance of species across the Kanha–Pench landscape in Central India. We sampled vegetation in twenty transects across different human and livestock population densities and frequencies of use. We found that biomass, species diversity and vegetation (abundance at different size classes) are negatively associated with increasing population density, and species composition at different size classes is significantly different at higher frequencies of use at low population densities. Lack of difference in species composition at high population densities may be due to colonization and growth of individuals at some of these sites due to creation of new ecological niches and gaps at high human use. Relative abundance of species at different size classes also varies with frequency of use and population density. Results suggest that human use is altering relative abundance of species, which may change long-term forest composition and thus alter biomass and vegetation structure of the forest. We conclude that human use is an agent in altering long-term composition that can alter availability of tree species for local use and other ecosystem services.