布什政府温室气体减排政策评析

美国作为世界政治经济大国和世界第一大温室气体排放国家，其温室气体减排政策备受关注。布什政府上台后不久宣布拒绝接受《京都议定书》，并于2002年2月提出“全球气候变化计划”。布什政府实际上在以各种借口推托美国应该承担的温室气体减排国际责任，这将对以UNFCCC为基础的全球气候合作产生消极影响，并对全球气候政策提出挑战。     

温室气体减排问题中的公平性与效率问题

《联合国气候变化框架公约》的最终目的是减少人为温室气体排放,稳定大气温室气体浓度,避免气候系统受到人为的危险干扰。本文指出,在承担温室气体减排义务时,公平性与时间效率,以及公平性与空间效率都是相互冲突的,并提出了兼顾公平性和效率的方案。     

《京都议定书》面临三大难题

《联合国气候变化框架公约》只是一个概括的纲领性公约，缺乏具体的可操作性，而《京都议定书》则是一个具体和具有法律效力的实施计划，它具体地规定了减少温室气体排放量。     

可持续发展信息与动态

加拿大制订减排温室气体的环保计划加拿大政府13日公布了一项耗资100亿加元(1美元约合1.24加元)的环保计划,以保证2012年达到《京都议定书》所规定的温室气体减排目标。根据这项计划,加拿大将在2008年至2012年间将温室气体排放量减少2.7亿t。加拿大目前的温室气体排放量与《京都议定书》规定的指标每年大约差6000万t。加拿大争取到2012年达到低于1990年温室气体排放量6%的水平。新公布的计划主要包括3个部分:气候变化基金、伙伴合作基金和研究基金。气候变化基金将帮助加拿大企业在国内外购买和出售废气排放量的指标数。伙伴合作基金将主要…     

我国气候变化研究的主要进展

当前 ,由于人为因素带来的全球气候变化日益成为国际社会关注的重大问题。气候变化将可能带来不可逆的全球尺度的气候系统的变化 ,从而可能给人类生存环境带来难以估量的变化 ,这种变化可能给人类和其他生物带来好处 ,也可能带来巨大的灾难 ,目前 ,科学上对这个问题还无法给出确定的回答。为防患于未然 ,保护现有的生存环境和气候系统 ,联合国制订了《联合国气候变化框架公约》及《联合国气候变化框架公约京都议定书》,要求世界各国按照“共同但有区别的责任”的原则 ,采取措施 ,履行义务 ,保护人类共同的生存环境。我国科学界在这一领域也…     

海牙会议提出新的环境交易:污染信用交易

联合国《气候变化框架公约》第六次缔约方大会于 2 0 0 0年11月 13～ 14日在海牙举行 ,会议涉及的内容使 1997年的《京都议定书》形成框架并付诸实施。《京都议定书》中对温室气体的排放量全部减少的数量进行了分配。来自 175个国家的谈判代表继续在海牙洽谈如何限制温室气体时 ,废气交易成了争议最大的问题。海牙会议提出新的环境交易 :污染信用交易 ,阻止全球气候变暖。污染像白糖或股票一样在市场上可以交易。如果实现 ,它还将带来一种全新的职业 :污染交易商。尽管到目前为止 ,污染交易一直还都是小规模、试验性的。但是 ,如果得到广泛…     

部分国家碳减排方案及其基本依据

二氧化碳是导致全球气候变暖最重要的温室气体．碳减排是缓解温室效应的一项重要措施．因而成为全球变化研究中的热点。在分析国际上主要利益集团中主要代表国家的碳减排方案的基础上．分析各个集团不同减排方案的基本依据。欧盟主张对灵活性机制的运用予以严格限制．强调发达国家应将主要精力放在本土的减排上．强烈反对允许以参与灵活机制来替代降低排放指标。伞形集团要求实施自由的排放权交易和灵活执行KP，主张对其应用不加任何限制．这是伞型国家的主要利益交合点。发展中国家共有的主要观点为：支持严格执行京都议定书．强调“共有但有区别的责任”的减排原则，认为发达国家应对温室气体排放负最大的责任并应率先减排。     

中国政府已经核准《京都议定书》

国务院总理朱基 2 0 0 2年 9月 3日在南非约翰内斯堡召开的可持续发展世界首脑会议上讲话时向世界宣布 ,中国政府已核准《〈联合国气候变化框架公约〉京都议定书》。朱基总理在讲话中说 :“中国政府认为 ,《联合国气候变化框架公约》及其《京都议定书》为国际合作应对气候变化确立了基本原则、提供了有效框架和规则 ,应当得到普遍遵守。”现在 ,欧盟各成员国及日本已批准了该议定书。朱基表示 ,中国希望其他发达国家尽快批准或核准议定书 ,争取使其在今年内生效。近年来 ,我国各级政府为应对气候变化付出了极大努力 ,特别是在提高能源…     

中国提出应对气候变化挑战的五点主张

2005年12月713，《联合国气候变化框架公约》第11次缔约方大会（COP11）暨《京都议定书》第1次缔约方大会（COP／MOP1）部长级会议在加拿大蒙特利尔开幕。来自世界各国的110多位部长和副部长级官员在未来3天里将就启动《京都议定书》第二承诺期谈判等重要议题展开讨论。     

对当前全球气候变化问题的思考

全球气候变化问题已经超越了一般环境问题的范畴,而成为国际政治经济外交关系的重要考虑因素。随着《京都议定书》的实施以及气候变化问题谈判进程的加快．对我国未来经济社会发展提出了挑战。文章分析认为．要求主要发展中国家承诺减限排义务的压力与日俱增,而我国开始进入工业化中期．应对气候变化问题的能力还比较薄弱。因此．提出应对全球气候变化问题的一些思考：（1）充分认识全球气候变化问题的重要性和严峻性,准确把握国际谈判进程;（2）加快制定适应和减缓气候变化的国家战略。采取适合我国国情的有力措施积极应对气候变暖;（3）加强气候变化领域的能力建设．提高我国参与全球气候变化活动的能力;（4）充分利用国际合作机制,提高我国应对气候变化的技术水平与经济能力。     

优化分配方式 提高资金环境绩效

十一五期间中央环境保护专项资金下达近91亿元,为我国环境污染防治和监管基础能力建设提供了强有力的资金保障。随着财政资金使用改革的不断深入,财政部和环保部对中央环境保护专项资金的管理已从过去以评审为中心转变为以绩效为中心,无论在资金投向、分配方式、过程管理、绩效评估等方面都紧密围绕环境绩效这一中心开展。本文在对十一五期间中央环境保护专项资金资金分配总体情况总结归纳的基础上,分析了资金分配方式制约绩效发挥的主要问题,以改革创新资金分配方式、提高环境绩效为目的,对中央统筹法、项目申报法、因素分配法等三种分配方式提出了若干改革优化的建议。     

Harmful and Needless Emission of Refrigerant and Countermeasures

Abstract

Refrigerants used in refrigerators are an important source of ozone depleting substances released into the atmosphere, and can have a significantly negative effect on the hole in the ozone layer. But most emission of refrigerants is man-made, unreasonable and needless. Since in most emission cases the refrigerants are contained in the refrigerators, we can retrieve them by some technique that changes the ‘manual emission’ into manual retrieving. To promote the retrieval action and diminish the pollution, society can use economic, administrative and technical countermeasures, which can create a ‘good-cycle’ both ‘harnessing pollution and earning income simultaneously’, reinforce the motive of retrieving, and retrieve most proportion of refrigerants used by all refrigerators. This ‘good-cycle’ method can be easily promoted, and also a valuable way to promote other forms of environmental protection. The three countermeasures have almost no social cost, even no cost at all.     

Harmful and Needless Emission of Refrigerant and Countermeasures

Refrigerants used in refrigerators are an important source of ozone depleting substances released into the atmosphere, and can have a significantly negative effect on the hole in the ozone layer. But most-emission of refrigerants is man-made, unreasonable and needless. Since in most emission cases the refrigerants are contained in the refrigerators, we can retrieve them by some technique that changes the ＇manual emission＇ into manual retrieving. To promote the retrieval action and diminish the pollution, society can use economic, administrative and technical countermeasures, which can create a ＇good-cycle＇ both ＇harnessing pollution and earning income simultaneously＇, reinforce the motive of retrieving, and retrieve most proportion of refrigerants used by＇all refrigerators. This ＇good-cycle＇ method can be easily promoted, and also a valuable way to promote other forms of environmental protection. The three countermeasures have almost no social cost, even no cost at all.     

Comparisons of elements and inorganic compounds inside and outside of residences

The results of more than 1 yr of air monitoring inside and outside of five homes in each of two communities are presented for SO₂, NO₂, mass respirable particles, SO₄, Al, Br, Cl, Mn, Na, and V. Outdoor measurements across the home site in each city are consistent with proximity to outdoor sources. Looking across indoor residential sites in each city, the home appears to alter outdoor concentrations in several ways. Indoor level of SO₂, SO₄, Mn, and V are lower than those measured outdoors. These constituents are thought generally to result from outdoor sources. The other constituents studied are at times found in excess within homes. In some cases the source or sources of excess concentration of a particular constituent could be identified; often, however, the source of excess indoor concentration could not be identified.     

Mutagenic and carcinogenic potency of extracts of diesel and related environmental emissions: Summary and discussion of the results

The proposed conversion from gasoline powered automobiles to diesel powered vehicels has prompted the Environmental Protection Agency to evaluate the potential health effects associated with exposure to diesel emissions. At present, there is no direct epidemiological link between this exposure and human health. Therefore, a research program was constructed to compare the health effects associated with diesel emissions with those from other emission sources for which epidemiological information was available. The emission sources chosen were cigarette smoke, roofing tar, and coke oven. An additional comparative emission source which was a gasoline catalyst engine. Respirable particles from a variety of combustion sources have the potential of being carcinogenic and mutagenic. The objective of these studies was to determine the relative biological activity of the organic material adsorbed on these particles in both in vitro mutagenesis and in vitro and in vivo bioassays. The organic extracts from the following series of emission sources were quantitatively bioassayed in a matrix of tests for their carcinogenic and mutagenic activity: (1) a light-duty Oldsmobile diesel 350 engine; (2) a heavy-duty Caterpillar diesel engine; (3) a light-duty Nissan engine; (4) a Volkswagen Rabbit diesel engine; (5) cigarette smoke; (6) roofing tar; (7) coke oven; and (8) a gasoline catalyst Mustang. The test matrix consisted of the following bioassay: reverse mutation in Salmonella typhimurium; mitotic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae; DNA damage in Syrian hamster embryo cells (SHE); sister chromatid exchange in CHO cells; gene mutation in L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells, Balb/c 3T3 mouse embryo fibroblasts and CHO cells; viral enhancement of SHE cells; oncogenic transformation in Balb/c 3T3 cells; and skin tumor initiation in SENCAR and C57 black mice. The results of this test matrix are discussed.     

Concentrations of chlorinated and brominated contaminants and their metabolites in serum of harbour seals and harbour porpoises

Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) and harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) are top predators in the North Sea and consequently accumulate a variety of pollutants in their tissues. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their hydroxylated metabolites (HO-PCBs and HO-PBDEs) were measured in serum of wild harbour seals (n = 47) and captive harbour porpoises (n = 21). Both species exhibit long life spans and do not have extreme situations, such as complete fasting during periods of lactation, in their annual cycles. For PCBs, concentrations in adult males were slightly higher than in juveniles and lowest in juvenile females. For PBDEs, juveniles have higher levels than adult males and females, probably as a consequence of lactational transfer. However, differences between these age–gender groups were not statistical significant, indicating that individual variation was limited within each species, even without knowing the feeding status of the animals. Body condition, particularly emaciation, has a major influence on the levels of chlorinated and brominated contaminants in serum. Profiles of PCBs were CB 153 > CB 138 > CB 187 > CB 180 and CB 153 > CB 138 > CB 149 > CB 187 > CB 180 for harbour seals and porpoises respectively. For PBDEs, BDE 47 was the predominant congener followed by BDE 100 and 99 in both species. In harbour seals, concentrations of sum PCBs (median: 39,200 pg/ml) were more than 200 times higher than levels of sum PBDEs (median: 130 pg/ml) and almost 10 times higher than concentrations of sum HO-PCBs (4350 pg/ml). In harbour porpoises, concentrations of sum PCBs (median: 24,300 pg/ml) were about 20 times higher than concentrations of PBDEs (median: 1300 pg/ml). HO-PCBs were detected in only 4 harbour porpoises and this at very low concentrations. Naturally-produced MeO-PBDEs were only found in harbour porpoises at concentrations ranging from 120 to 810 pg/ml. HO-PBDEs were not found in any species. In general, harbour seals accumulate less compounds and have mostly lower concentrations than harbour porpoises possibly as a result of a better developed metabolism.     

Relevance of BFRs and thermal conditions on the formation pathways of brominated and brominated-chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans

The widespread use of brominated flame-retarded products in the last two decades has resulted in an increasing presence of bromine in thermal processes such as waste combustion and accidental fires. Brominated and brominated-chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDDs/PBDFs, PXDDs/PXDFs) are micropollutants of concern arising from such processes. The present review aims to evaluate the relevance of these compound classes in actual thermal processes. Four categories of thermal processes are discussed in this respect according to their potential for PBDD/PBDF and PXDD/PXDF generation: thermal stress, pyrolysis/gasification, insufficient combustion conditions and controlled combustion conditions. Under thermal stress situations, as they may occur in production or recycling processes, PBDDs/PBDFs precursors like polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDE) can have a relevant potential for PBDD/PBDF formation via a simple elimination. Under insufficient combustion conditions as they are present in, e.g. accidental fires and uncontrolled burning as well as gasification/pyrolysis processes, considerable amounts of PBDDs/PBDFs can be formed from BFRs, preferably via the precursor pathway. In contrast, under controlled combustion conditions, BFRs and PBDDs/PBDFs can be destroyed with high efficiency. The relevance of de novo synthesis of PXDDs/PXDFs is discussed for this condition.Providing a basis for the understanding of PXDD/PXDF formation in actual thermal processes, the present paper also summarises the formation pathways of brominated and brominated-chlorinated PXDDs/PXDFs from brominated flame retardants (BFRs) investigated during laboratory thermolysis experiments. Relevant mechanistic steps for PBDD/PBDF formation from brominated precursors are discussed including elimination reactions, condensation steps and debromination/hydrogenation reactions.In addition, chlorination/bromination and halogen exchange reactions are briefly discussed with respect for their relevance on the final distribution of PBDDs/PBDFs, mixed chlorinated PXDDs/PXDFs and PCDDs/PCDFs resulting from thermal processes.     

经济波动与最优城镇化水平和速度研究

城镇化对经济波动具有重要影响,过快和过慢均不利于经济的平稳发展。我国经济新常态客观上要求实施新型城镇化战略,关键是积极稳妥推进城镇化,科学控制城镇化水平和速度。以宏观经济稳定为目标,确定最优城镇化规则,诊断当前城镇化水平和速度,可为落实新型城镇化,稳定宏观经济提供决策参考。本文建立了附加城镇化变量的后顾型宏观经济模型,利用最优控制理论求解基于宏观经济波动最小化的最优城镇化水平和速度决定规则,实证结果表明:我国人口城镇化速度主要对宏观总需求产生影响,而土地城镇化速度既影响总需求也影响总供给;最优城镇化速度规则对总产出缺口负反馈,对通胀缺口正反馈。在此基础上,进一步模拟了1990-2013年间最优人口城镇化、土地城镇化水平以及相应的总产出和通胀波动情况,模拟结果显示:最优城镇化水平和速度规则具有逆经济周期的特征,为保持经济平稳发展,经济过度繁荣时城镇化应减速,经济衰退时应加速城镇化,我国历史上城镇化速度和水平存在较大的优化空间;最优城镇化水平和速度规则会小幅度降低城镇化进程和总产出的平滑性,但会大幅度抑制通胀波动,总体来看使总福利损失下降约三分之一;当前我国人口城镇化水平超前速度过快,土地城镇化水平偏低速度过慢。建议"十三五"期间,政府应该根据宏观经济波动情况适当控制人口城镇化速度,加快推进土地城镇化,提高土地城镇化水平和质量,同时应制定相应的财政政策和货币政策以促进最优城镇化规则发挥其降低宏观经济波动功能。     

Fate and transport of pathogens in lakes and reservoirs

Outbreaks of water-borne disease via public water supplies continue to be reported in developed countries even though there is increased awareness of, and treatment for, pathogen contamination. Pathogen episodes in lakes and reservoirs are often associated with rain events, and the riverine inflow is considered to be major source of pathogens. Consequently, the behaviour of these inflows is of particular importance in determining pathogen transport and distribution. Inflows are controlled by their density relative to that of the lake, such that warm inflows will flow over the surface of the lake as a buoyant surface flow and cold, dense inflows will sink beneath the lake water where they will flow along the bathymetry towards the deepest point. The fate of pathogens is determined by loss processes including settling and inactivation by temperature, UV and grazing. The general trend is for the insertion timescale to be shortest, followed by sedimentation losses and temperature inactivity. The fate of Cryptosporidium due to UV light inactivation can occur at opposite ends of the scale, depending on the location of the oocysts in the water column and the extinction coefficient for UV light. For this reason, the extinction coefficient for UV light appears to be a vitally important parameter for determining the risk of Cryptosporidium contamination. For risk assessment of pathogens in supply reservoirs, it is important to understand the role of hydrodynamics in determining the timescale of transport to the off-take relative to the timescale of inactivation. The characteristics of the riverine intrusion must also be considered when designing a sampling program for pathogens. A risk management framework is presented that accounts for pathogen fate and transport for reservoirs.     

中国地表权、地下权概念、应用模式及相关问题分析

文章通过对地表权、地下权相关法律概念的梳理,指出地表权、地下权概念界定的复杂性,借鉴《商业词典》对地表权和地下权的定义,探讨了在中国矿产资源一元所有制及土地二元所有制并存的情形下,地表权与地下权的应用模式、相关产权界定及存在的问题。文章分三种情形对二者的应用模式进行了探讨,指出:地表权与地下权相分离的模式是符合中国国情的一种合理选择,但是在具体实践中却存在农村集体作为土地拥有者的地位没有得到应有的尊重、矿业权主体行政审批问题严重、矿产资源的国家所有权权益没有得到应有的体现、矿产资源开发中的环境产权界定不清晰等问题;在探讨中指出两个启迪性的思路:一是使农村集体参与矿产资源开发收益分成模式;二是在现有的征地制度下,理顺价格机制,建立有效的土地流转市场,在土地使用权转让中,给予土地所有者以价格补偿。文章进一步对矿产资源开发中的土地所有权界定、税费问题、土地价格补偿及环境产权分配给予相应的分析并给出建议。